Changing Relationships Between Superpowers & Developing Nations (Edexcel A Level Geography)

• There are increasing economic ties between emerging powers such as China and developing nations

China and African nations

• Since 2008 China has been Africa's largest trading partner
• In 2021 China had US$4.99 billion of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Africa
• One third of China's construction companies business was in Africa in 2015
• China's increasing demand for resources has driven this increase with most of the investment often being targeted at resource rich nations such as DR Congo, Zambia and Algeria
• China has made large scale investment in transport and infrastructure to improve efficiency of resource exploitation and exports including:
  • The Nairobi Expressway in Kenya
  • Doraleh Multi-Purpose Port in Djibouti
  • Benguela Railway in Angola
• Much of this has been part of the China proposed Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) which is aimed at improving connectivity
• The increased economic ties have a range of environmental impacts and challenges as well as opportunities

Environmental Impacts, Benefits and Challenges

• The status of China and India as emerging superpowers and as global economic powers is clear
  • China is the second largest economy in the world and India is the fifth
  • They are both members of the G20 which works to address issues related to the global economy
  • Together they account for 40% of the world's population 
  • They have increasing global political influence and have made military expansions
• The emergence of these two countries has led to increasing tensions in the region, between the countries themselves and with other nations

China-India

• From the 1960s to 1980s there were three border clashes between the countries 
  • Control of areas such as Tawang along the border are disputed
• Tensions eased from the late 1980s and China became India's largest trading partner
• 2013, 2018 and 2020 saw escalation of the border conflicts along the Sino-Indian border
• Both countries maintain a military presence along their common border and are wary of the other:
  • China has concerns about India's increased military presence in the South-China Sea 
  • India has concerns about China's political relationship with Pakistan

Taiwan

• China claims that Taiwan is a Chinese province
• Taiwan is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC) the government which was overthrown in mainland China by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the Chinese Civil War
• It is a constitutional republic unlike the PRC which is a communist state
• China has conducted a number of military exercises, both in the air and at sea, in the area around Taiwan as recently as 2022
  • Some of these crossed Taiwan's maritime border and into the Air Defence Zone
• Taiwan has developed a political relationship with the USA
• The 2022 Chinese military exercises were a response to a visit to Taiwan by the Speaker of the US House of Representatives

India - Pakistan

• In 1947 the Indian subcontinent was divided into a Hindu majority India and a Muslim majority Pakistan - known as the Partition of India
• Over 15 million people were displaced and almost 2 million were killed in the period that followed 
• There have been tensions between the two nations ever since
• Conflict broke out over the region of Kashmir and in 1949 the UN backed a division of Kashmir (37% Pakistan and 63% India)
  • Both claim that Kashmir should be theirs in full
• In 1965 a second conflict broke out 
• A nuclear arms race started between the two nations in 1974 - they are now the world's sixth and seventh nuclear powers
• In 1989 there was a rebellion in Indian controlled Kashmir
• This has been followed by a number of border clashes and incursions in 1999, 2008

• The Middle East is one of the most conflict prone regions in the world
• Tensions in the region are an ongoing challenge for superpowers and emerging powers, a situation exacerbated by the fact that current estimates state that 80% of the proven oil reserves are in the region
  • With rising demands for energy it is important for superpowers and emerging powers to maintain:
    
    • Stability within the region as far as possible
    • Relations with the nations in the Middle East
• There are complex relationships, alliances and historical events which have led to this, including:
  • Religious differences both between and within religious groups
  • The establishment of the state of Israel after WWII
  • The rise of pockets of extremist organisations
  • Kurdish organisations pursuing demands for an independent state
  • Contrasting cultural ideologies
• Some of the recent events which have further increased tensions in the region include:
  • The Iraqi- Kurdish conflict, tensions have increased over the issues of oil production and territorial control
  • The Arab-Israeli conflict
  • Yemen civil war
  • Iran-Iraq war following the Iraqi invasion of Iran
  • Gulf war following the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq
  • The Iraq War following the invasion of Iraq by a USA coalition
  • The Syrian civil war
• The tensions can be divided into:
  • Cultural - between religious or ethnic groups
  • Political - attempts to increase political influence in the region
  • Economic - conflict over resources
  • Environmental - the impact of conflicts and exploitation of resources on the environment
• The contrasting cultural ideologies between nations were clear in the run up and during the Qatar 2022 World Cup
• Many protests were made against the World Cup being held in a country that didn't have the same cultural ideologies as Western countries such as the US and EU nations