1. Biological Molecules

1.1 Biological Molecules: Carbohydrates

1.1.1 Biological Molecules: Key Terms

1.1.2 Biological Molecules: Reactions

1.1.3 Monosaccharides

1.1.4 Glucose

1.1.5 The Glycosidic Bond

1.1.6 Chromatography: Monosaccharides

1.1.7 Disaccharides

1.1.8 Starch & Glycogen

1.1.9 Cellulose

1.1.10 Biochemical Tests: Sugars & Starch

1.1.11 Finding the Concentration of Glucose

1.2 Biological Molecules: Lipids

1.2.1 Lipids

1.2.2 Triglyceride Function

1.2.3 Phospholipids

1.2.4 Biochemical Tests: Lipids

1.2.5 Lipid Diagrams & Properties

1.3 Biological Molecules: Proteins

1.3.1 Amino Acids & the Peptide Bond

1.3.2 Chromatography: Amino Acids

1.3.3 Protein Structure & Function

1.3.4 Protein Interactions

1.3.5 Biochemical Tests: Proteins

1.3.6 Globular & Fibrous Proteins

1.3.7 The Molecular Structure of Haemoglobin

1.3.8 The Molecular Structure of Collagen

1.4 Proteins: Enzymes

1.4.1 Many Proteins are Enzymes

1.4.2 Enzyme Specificity

1.4.3 How Enzymes Work

1.4.4 Required Practical: Measuring Enzyme Activity

1.4.5 Maths Skill: Drawing a Graph for Enzyme Rate Experiments

1.4.6 Maths Skill: Using a Tangent to Find Initial Rate of Reaction

1.4.7 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Temperature

1.4.8 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: pH

1.4.9 Maths Skill: Calculating pH

1.4.10 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Enzyme Concentration

1.4.11 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Substrate Concentration

1.4.12 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Inhibitors

1.4.13 Models & Functions of Enzyme Action

1.4.14 Practical Skill: Controlling Variables & Calculating Uncertainty

1.5 Nucleic Acids: Structure & DNA Replication

1.5.1 The Function of DNA & RNA

1.5.2 Nucleotide Structure & the Phosphodiester Bond

1.5.3 The Structure of DNA

1.5.4 The Structure of RNA

1.5.5 Ribosomes

1.5.6 The Origins of Research on the Genetic Code

1.5.7 Semi-Conservative Replication

1.5.8 The Process of Semi-Conservative Replication

1.5.9 Calculating the Frequency of Nucleotide Bases

1.5.10 The Watson Crick Model

1.6 ATP, Water & Inorganic Ions

1.6.1 The Structure of ATP

1.6.2 Hydrolysis & Synthesis of ATP

1.6.3 The Properties of Water

1.6.4 Inorganic Ions

2. Cell Structure

2.1 Cell Structure

2.1.1 The Cell Theory

2.1.2 Structure of Eukaryotic Cells

2.1.3 Specialisation of Eukaryotic Cells

2.1.4 Eukaryotic Cell Organisation

2.1.5 Structure of Prokaryotic Cells

2.1.6 Prokaryotic v Eukaryotic Cells

2.1.7 Viruses

2.2 The Microscope in Cell Studies

2.2.1 Methods of studying cells

2.2.2 Microscopy & Drawing Scientific Diagrams

2.2.3 Iodine Detects Starch Grains

2.2.4 Resolution & Magnification

2.2.5 Magnification Calculations

2.2.6 Cell Fractionation & Ultracentrifugation

2.2.7 Scientific Research into Cell Organelles

2.3 Cell Division in Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic Cells

2.3.1 Interphase

2.3.2 Mitosis

2.3.3 The Stages of Mitosis

2.3.4 Cytokinesis

2.3.5 Recognising the Stages of Mitosis

2.3.6 Investigating Plant Root Tips

2.3.7 Uncontrolled Cell Division & Cancer

2.3.8 Binary Fission

2.3.9 Viral Particle Replication

2.4 Cell Membranes & Transport

2.4.1 The Structure of Cell Membranes

2.4.2 Components of Cell Surface Membranes

2.4.3 The Cell Surface Membrane

2.4.4 Diffusion

2.4.5 Osmosis

2.4.6 Osmosis in Plant Cells

2.4.7 Osmosis in Animal Cells

2.4.8 Comparing Osmosis in Animal & Plant Cells

2.4.9 Water Potential Calibration Curves

2.4.10 Active Transport & Co-transport

2.4.11 Adaptations for Rapid Transport

2.4.12 Specialised Cells

2.4.13 Factors Affecting Membrane Fluidity

2.5 Cell Recognition & the Immune System

2.5.1 Cell Recognition

2.5.2 Antigens

2.5.3 Phagocytosis

2.5.4 The T Lymphocyte Response

2.5.5 The Role of Antigen-Presenting Cells

2.5.6 The Role of Helper T cells

2.5.7 The B lymphocyte Response

2.5.8 Antibodies

2.5.9 Antigen-Antibody Complex

2.5.10 Plasma & Memory Cells

2.6 Vaccines, Disease & Monoclonal Antibodies

2.6.1 Vaccines

2.6.2 Active & Passive Immunity

2.6.3 HIV

2.6.4 AIDS

2.6.5 Monoclonal Antibodies

2.6.6 Ethical Issues with Vaccines & Monoclonal Antibodies

2.6.7 ELISA

3. Exchange & Transport

3.1 Adaptations for Gas Exchange

3.1.1 Surface Area to Volume Ratio

3.1.2 Agar Blocks Practical

3.1.3 Adaptation to Facilitate Exchange

3.1.4 SA:V Ratio & Metabolic Rate

3.1.5 Adaptations of Gas Exchange Surfaces

3.1.6 Gas Exchange vs Water Loss

3.2 Human Gas Exchange

3.2.1 The Human Gas Exchange System

3.2.2 Dissecting the Gas Exchange System

3.2.3 Looking at the Gas Exchange under the Microscope

3.2.4 Three-way Taps

3.2.5 The Alveolar Epithelium

3.2.6 Ventilation & Gas Exchange

3.2.7 PVR

3.2.8 The Effects of Lung Disease

3.2.9 Pollution & Smoking

3.2.10 Evaluating Data on Lung Disease

3.2.11 Correlations & Causal Relationships - The Lungs

3.3 Digestion & Absorption

3.3.1 Digestion

3.3.2 Enzymes in Digestion

3.3.3 Enzyme Rate Practical

3.3.4 Mechanisms of Absorption

3.3.5 Visking Tubing Practical

3.4 Mass Transport in Animals

3.4.1 Features of Mass Transport

3.4.2 Haemoglobin & Oxygen

3.4.3 The Role of Haemoglobin

3.4.4 The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

3.4.5 The Bohr Shift

3.4.6 Cardiac Output

3.4.7 Animal Adaptations For Their Environment

3.5 The Circulatory System in Animals

3.5.1 Mammalian Circulation

3.5.2 The Human Heart

3.5.3 The Walls of the Heart

3.5.4 The Cardiac Cycle

3.5.5 Investigating Heart Rate

3.5.6 Blood Vessels

3.5.7 Capillaries & Tissue Fluid

3.5.8 Interpreting Data on the Cardiovascular System

3.5.9 Correlations & Causal Relationships - The Heart

3.5.10 Required Practical: Dissecting Mass Transport Systems

3.6 Mass Transport in Plants

3.6.1 Water Transport in the Xylem

3.6.2 Transpiration

3.6.3 Potometer

3.6.4 Movement in the Phloem

3.6.5 The Sucrose Loading Mechanism

3.6.6 The Mass Flow Hypothesis

3.6.7 Data on the Mass Flow Hypothesis

3.6.8 Tracer & Ringing Experiments

4. Genetics, Variation & Interdependence

4.1 DNA, Genes & Chromosomes

4.1.1 Prokaryotic DNA

4.1.2 Eukaryotic DNA

4.1.3 Mitochondria & Chloroplast DNA

4.1.4 Genes

4.1.5 Genetic Loci

4.1.6 The Triplet Code

4.1.7 Non-Coding DNA

4.2 DNA & Protein Synthesis

4.2.1 The Genome

4.2.2 The Structure of RNA

4.2.3 Transcription

4.2.4 Eukaryotic Transcription

4.2.5 Translation

4.2.6 Nucleic Acid & Amino Acid Sequence Comparison

4.3 Genetic Diversity: Mutations & Meiosis

4.3.1 Genetic Mutations

4.3.2 Mutations in Chromosome Number

4.3.3 Meiosis

4.3.4 Meiosis in Animal & Plant cells

4.3.5 Meiosis: Sources of Genetic Variation

4.3.6 Meiosis Under a Microscope

4.3.7 The Outcomes & Processes of Mitosis & Meiosis

4.4 Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

4.4.1 Genetic Diversity

4.4.2 Maths Skill: Using Logarithms When Investigating Bacteria

4.4.3 Natural Selection

4.4.4 Directional & Stabilising Selection

4.4.5 Environmental Adaption

4.4.6 Investigating Microbial Growth

4.5 Species & Taxonomy

4.5.1 Courtship

4.5.2 Phylogenetic Classification

4.5.3 Hierarchy of the Taxa

4.5.4 Evolutionary Relationships

4.6 Biodiversity

4.6.1 Biodiversity Within a Community

4.6.2 Species Richness

4.6.3 Index of Diversity

4.6.4 Conservation & Farming

4.6.5 Investigating Diversity

4.6.6 Random Sampling

4.6.7 Quantitative Investigations of Variation

4.6.8 Mean & Standard Deviation

4.6.9 Genetic Relationships Between Organisms

5. Energy Transfers In & Between Organisms (A Level only)

5.1 Photosynthesis (A Level only)

5.1.1 Chloroplast Structures & their Functions

5.1.2 The Light Dependent Reaction

5.1.3 Photosynthetic Pigments

5.1.4 Using the Products of the Light Dependent Reaction

5.1.5 The Light-Independent Reaction

5.1.6 Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis

5.1.7 Investigating the Rate of Photosynthesis

5.2 Respiration (A Level only)

5.2.1 Mitochondria & the Need for Energy

5.2.2 The Stages of Aerobic Respiration

5.2.3 Glycolysis

5.2.4 The Link Reaction

5.2.5 The Krebs Cycle

5.2.6 The Role of NAD & FAD

5.2.7 Oxidative Phosphorylation

5.2.8 Anaerobic Respiration

5.2.9 Investigating the Rate of Respiration

5.3 Energy & Ecosystems (A Level only)

5.3.1 Primary Producers

5.3.2 Photosynthetic Products

5.3.3 Biomass

5.3.4 Gross Primary Production

5.3.5 Net Primary Production

5.3.6 Trophic Levels

5.3.7 Secondary Productivity

5.3.8 Calculating Productivity & Efficiency

5.3.9 Percentage Yield

5.3.10 The Effect of Farming

5.4 Nutrient Cycles (A Level only)

5.4.1 Nutrient Cycles

5.4.2 Practical Skill: Investigate the Effect of Minerals on Plant Growth

5.4.3 Microorganisms Role in Recycling Minerals

5.4.4 Fertilisers

6. Organisms Respond to Changes in their Environments (A Level only)

6.1 Response to Stimuli (A Level only)

6.1.1 Survival & Response

6.1.2 Growth Factors in Flowering Plants

6.1.3 Indoleacetic Acid (IAA)

6.1.4 Taxis & Kinesis

6.1.5 Reflex Arcs

6.1.6 Causes of Animal Movement

6.1.7 The Pacinian Corpuscle

6.1.8 Generator Potential

6.1.9 Investigating Touch and Temperature Receptors

6.1.10 The Human Retina

6.1.11 Myogenic Stimulation of the Heart

6.1.12 Investigating Variables that Affect Heart Rate

6.1.13 The Autonomic Nervous System

6.1.14 Calculating Cardiac Output

6.2 Nervous Coordination (A Level only)

6.2.1 Neurones

6.2.2 Resting Potentials

6.2.3 Nerve Impulses

6.2.4 The Refractory Period

6.2.5 Speed of Conduction of Impulses

6.2.6 Maths Skill: Calculating Maximum Impulse Frequency

6.2.7 Cholinergic Synapses

6.2.8 Transmission Across a Cholinergic Synapse

6.2.9 Drug Effects on Synapses

6.2.10 Neuromuscular Junctions

6.3 Skeletal Muscles (A Level only)

6.3.1 Muscle Pairs

6.3.2 The Structure of Skeletal Muscle

6.3.3 Examining Skeletal Muscle Under a Microscope

6.3.4 Muscular Contraction

6.3.5 Slow & Fast Skeletal Muscles

6.3.6 Investigating Muscle Fatigue

6.4 Homeostasis (A Level only)

6.4.1 Principles of Homeostasis

6.4.2 Negative Feedback

6.4.3 Insulin

6.4.4 Glucagon

6.4.5 Adrenaline

6.4.6 Control of Blood Glucose Concentration

6.4.7 Diabetes

6.4.8 Calculating the Concentration of Glucose in Urine

6.4.9 The Structure of the Nephron

6.4.10 The Function of the Nephron

6.4.11 Control of Blood Water Potential

7. Genetics, Populations, Evolution & Ecosystems (A Level only)

7.1 Inheritance (A Level only)

7.1.1 Key Terms in Genetics

7.1.2 Predicting Inheritance: Monohybrid Crosses

7.1.3 Predicting Inheritance: Dihybrid Crosses

7.1.4 Predicting Inheritance: Test Crosses

7.1.5 Investigating Genetic Ratios

7.1.6 The Chi-squared Test

7.2 Populations (A Level only)

7.2.1 Populations

7.2.2 Gene Pools & Allele Frequency

7.2.3 Hardy-Weinberg

7.3 Evolution (A Level only)

7.3.1 Genetic Variation

7.3.2 Natural Selection

7.3.3 Selective Advantage

7.3.4 Types of Selection

7.3.5 Evolution

7.3.6 Reproductive Separation

7.3.7 Types of Speciation

7.3.8 Investigating the Effects of Random Sampling on Allele Frequencies

7.4 Populations in Ecosystems (A Level only)

7.4.1 Communities

7.4.2 Abiotic & Biotic Factors

7.4.3 Carrying Capacity

7.4.4 Estimating the Size of a Population

7.4.5 Ecosystems

7.4.6 Succession

7.4.7 Growth Rate of Microorganisms

7.4.8 Conservation & Human Need

7.4.9 Investigating Species Distribution

8. The Control of Gene Expression (A Level only)

8.1 Genetic Mutations (A Level only)

8.1.1 Genetic Mutations

8.1.2 The Effect of Genetic Mutations

8.2 Regulation of Gene Expression (A Level only)

8.2.1 Totipotent Cells

8.2.2 Stem Cells

8.2.3 The Use of Stem Cells

8.2.4 Producing Tissue Cultures of Explants

8.2.5 Regulation of Transcription

8.2.6 Evaluating Data about Genetic Expression

8.2.7 Epigenetics

8.2.8 Epigenetics & Disease

8.2.9 RNA Interference

8.2.10 Two Types of Tumours

8.2.11 Tumour Development

8.3 Using Genome Projects (A Level only)

8.3.1 Genome Sequencing Projects

8.3.2 Determining Protein Sequences

8.3.3 Non-Coding DNA & Regulatory Genes

8.3.4 Sequencing Methods

8.4 Gene Technologies (A Level only)

8.4.1 Recombinant DNA Technology

8.4.2 Producing Fragments of DNA

8.4.3 Investigating the Specificity of Restriction Enzymes

8.4.4 Polymerase Chain Reaction

8.4.5 Culture of Transformed Host Cells

8.4.6 Uses of Recombinant DNA Technology

8.4.7 DNA Probes & DNA Hybridisation

8.4.8 Screening Patients

8.4.9 Genetic Counselling & Personalised Medicine

8.4.10 Variable Number Tandem Repeats

8.4.11 Gel Electrophoresis

8.4.12 Genetic Fingerprinting

8.4.13 Uses of Genetic Fingerprinting