Threats to Antarctica (AQA A Level Geography)

• Unsustainable fishing is a major threat, with species such as the Patagonian Toothfish at risk of becoming endangered
• Overfishing of krill could undermine the entire marine ecosystem because they are a primary food source for many species such as whales, seals and penguins
• If krill populations decline, it could lead to population declines and potential extinctions of other species that depend on krill as a food source
• Illegal and unregulated fishing is difficult to monitor and has increased over the last 10 years
• Fishing also threatens species such as albatross and petrels which get caught in fishing lines and drown
• Historically, commercial whaling was a significant threat with many whale species hunted to near extinction
• Whaling has declined since commercial whaling was banned, though some countries, such as Norway and Japan continue to hunt whales 
• It takes a very long time for whale populations to recover because whales are very slow to reproduce
• Most whale species only give birth to one calf at a time, and the gestation period lasts between 9 and 18 months

Number of whales killed

• Antarctica has various mineral resources such as coal, iron ore, copper, gold and platinum

Antarctica mineral reserves

• There are also large reserves of oil under the Southern Ocean
• The resources would be difficult to extract due to the harsh environment and lack of accessibility
• Mineral extraction is currently banned, but there are fears that pressure may increase due to the rising demand for resources and melting ice which makes them more accessible
• Mining in the Antarctic would have a significant impact on the environment and would threaten the delicate balance of the ecosystems in the region
  • Habitat destruction and wildlife disturbance would result from the building of roads and other infrastructure 
  • Pollution and toxic waste are often byproducts in mining operations which would contaminate land and water
  • Oil spills would have a devastating and long-term impact, perhaps remaining in the environment for decades due to the low temperatures

• Scientific research is essential to understand the unique ecosystems and climate of Antarctica
• Scientists and their support staff live temporarily in 82 research stations, with the population reaching a peak of 5000 during the summer months and dropping to 1000 in the winter months

Antarctica research stations

• Research activities such as drilling can disturb wildlife and disrupt breeding or feeding patterns
• Research stations need fuel and supplies which can lead to pollution from the ships and vehicles which deliver them. 
• There are problems with waste disposal
  • Solid waste is transported away from Antarctica and disposed of
  • Sewage waste is another issue, in some areas seal and penguin populations are exposed to high levels of bacteria 
    • This led to the building of a waste treatment plant at Australia’s Davis station
  • Waste treatment still varies widely between research stations
• Scientists may accidentally introduce invasive species which could endanger the fragile ecosystem

• Antarctica is experiencing a much faster rate of warming than the rest of the world with temperatures rising by 2-3 times the global average
• As glaciers and ice sheets melt, the albedo effect causes warming to accelerate
  • The dark-coloured ocean or land surface absorbs more of the sun’s energy, rather than reflecting it back into space
  • This causes more warming, contributing to a positive feedback loop
• Warming causes glaciers and ice sheets to melt – bringing significant changes to the environment and contributing to global sea level rise
• Antarctica is losing ice mass at an average rate of 150 million tonnes per year

Graph showing the rate of ice melt in Antarctica

• Melting ice could disrupt ocean currents, impacting global weather patterns and marine life
• Warming causes shifts in the timing of seasonal events such as the breeding and migration of penguins and other seabirds, as well as increasing the likelihood of invasive species
• Loss of sea ice affects the feeding habits and survival of seals, whales and penguins
  • Adélie penguins have already experienced a significant population decline
  • They need stable sea ice to build their nests and raise their young - as ice is lost, it has a significant effect on their breeding
  • Adélie penguins are an essential part of the food web so their decline affects the rest of the ecosystem 
    • They are a food source for other species such as killer whales and leopard seals - the decline could lead to increased competition for food among these species
    • They feed on krill and small fish - the decline in penguins could lead to an increase in krill and small fish which could upset the balance of the ecosystem
• Climate change causes ocean acidification which could cause a severe decline in phytoplankton and krill, potentially undermining the entire marine ecosystem

• The number of tourists has been steadily increasing from fewer than 2000 visitors a year in the 1980s, to almost 75,000 in 2019/20
• There are several reasons for this growth:
• Improved transport has made it easier and more affordable to travel
• Growing demand for adventure travel and unique experiences attracts people seeking to explore remote and pristine environments
• Rising incomes mean that more people can afford to travel to Antarctica

Number of tourists visiting Antarctica

• 18,000 of these tourists visited by cruise liner and did not step foot in Antarctica
• More shipping and air travel can increase pollution and there are fears that more tourists mean increased disruption to feeding and breeding patterns