Nucleophilic Addition (Oxford AQA International A Level Chemistry)

Revision Note

Philippa Platt

Written by: Philippa Platt

Reviewed by: Stewart Hird

Nucleophilic Addition

  • Many of the reactions which carbonyl compounds undergo are nucleophilic addition reactions

  • The carbonyl group -C=O, in aldehydes and ketones is polarised

  • The oxygen atom is more electronegative than carbon drawing electron density towards itself

  • This leaves the carbon atom slightly positively charged and the oxygen atom slightly negatively charged

  • The carbonyl carbon is therefore susceptible to attack by a nucleophile, such as the cyanide ion

The dipole in the carbonyl group

7.2.3 carbonyl dipole, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes
The carbonyl group here has a dipole with a delta positive carbon and a delta negative oxygen

 General Mechanism with an aldehyde:

7.2.3 Nucleophilic addition with aldehydes, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

General Mechanism with a ketone: 

7.2.3 Nucleophilic addition with ketones, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes
In both reactions, the nucleophile (Nu) attacks the carbonyl carbon to form a negatively charged intermediate which quickly reacts with a proton

Addition of HCN to carbonyl compounds

  • The nucleophilic addition of hydrogen cyanide to carbonyl compounds is a two-step process, as shown below

    7.2.3 Ethanal and CN Nucleophilic addition, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes
  • In step 1, the cyanide ion attacks the carbonyl carbon to form a negatively charged intermediate

  • In step 2, the negatively charged oxygen atom in the reactive intermediate quickly reacts with aqueous H+ (either from HCN, water or dilute acid) to form 2-hydroxynitrile compounds,

    • e.g. 2-hydroxypropanenitrile

Examiner Tips and Tricks

By convention, we write the formula of an ion then its charge, e.g. CN-.

  • The actual negative charge on the cyanide ion is on the carbon atom and not on the nitrogen atom.

  • However, when writing it together as :CN- you will not be penalised for writing the minus charge after the N.

Forming Enantiomers

  • Even if a starting material does not display optical isomerism, it can still form a product which does display optical isomerism

  • This is the case when aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition with hydrogen cyanide, HCN

  • Due to the shape of the aldehyde or ketone, the :CN- can attack on either side of the carbonyl

    • When it attacks on one side, it will produce one enantiomer and when it attacks on the other side, it will produce the other enantiomer

      7.2.3 Enantiomers general, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes
  • The reaction mixture which is produced will be a racemic mixture

  • There will be a 50:50 mixture of both enantiomers, because there is a 50:50 chance of attack happening on each side

  • Racemic mixtures are formed when addition reactions are done with a planar starting material, because the reaction takes place with equal probability from either side of the plane

Nucleophilic attack

7.2.3 Attack of carbonyl from both sides, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes
The attack from the :CN- has a 50:50 chance of taking place on either side of the C=O bond
7.2.3 Hydroxynitrile enantiomers, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes
A racemic mixture, or racemate, of each enantiomer is formed 
  • The enantiomers in a racemic mixture both rotate plane polarised light, but they rotate it in opposite directions

  • Because there is a 50:50 mixture of both enantiomers, each rotating light in equal amounts but opposite directions, the effects on plane polarised light are cancelled out

  • Therefore, there will be no effect on plane polarised light with a racemic mixture

    • The optical rotation of the racemic mixture is zero

  • This can be used as a test to determine whether a mixture is racemic

    • If you know that a sample contains enantiomers of chiral compounds, and when tested there is no effect on plane polarised light, then the reaction mixture must be racemic

    • If there is an effect on plane polarised light, then the sample is not racemic

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Philippa Platt

Author: Philippa Platt

Expertise: Chemistry

Philippa has worked as a GCSE and A level chemistry teacher and tutor for over thirteen years. She studied chemistry and sport science at Loughborough University graduating in 2007 having also completed her PGCE in science. Throughout her time as a teacher she was incharge of a boarding house for five years and coached many teams in a variety of sports. When not producing resources with the chemistry team, Philippa enjoys being active outside with her young family and is a very keen gardener

Stewart Hird

Author: Stewart Hird

Expertise: Chemistry Lead

Stewart has been an enthusiastic GCSE, IGCSE, A Level and IB teacher for more than 30 years in the UK as well as overseas, and has also been an examiner for IB and A Level. As a long-standing Head of Science, Stewart brings a wealth of experience to creating Topic Questions and revision materials for Save My Exams. Stewart specialises in Chemistry, but has also taught Physics and Environmental Systems and Societies.