Primary Sources of Data: Quantitative Methods (AQA GCSE Sociology)
Revision Note
Written by: Raj Bonsor
Reviewed by: Cara Head
Social surveys
Social surveys are a popular research method that involve collecting information from a large number of people
A social survey consists of a list of pre-set questions that a respondent answers
The questions are standardised so each respondent answers an identical set of questions in the same order
How to carry out survey research
There are two main ways to carry out survey research:
Self-completion questionnaires that can be delivered and completed in three ways
By post
Email
Hand delivered
Structured or formal interviews where the interviewer reads the questions from an interview schedule and they are answered in real-time. They can be carried out in two ways
Face to face
By telephone
Types of question
Two types of questions may be used in questionnaires and interviews:
Closed or fixed-choice questions
The respondent must select one of several options, typically by checking a box like a 'yes' or 'no' question
Software can easily analyse and provide a statistical summary of the answers to closed questions
It is important that all possible answers are included in the questionnaire
Closed questions allow researchers to collect quantitative data
Open-ended questions
These allow respondents to put forward their own answers to the set questions, such as 'what are your views on the current government?'
Responses to open questions tend to be varied, longer and more detailed than responses to closed questions, so they are difficult to convert into statistics
Open questions allow researchers to collect qualitative data
Postal questionnaires
A postal questionnaire is a method of data collection where a questionnaire is sent to a potential participant by post, and they fill it out and return it in the post
The census is a compulsory postal questionnaire that households are required to fill out on one day every 10 years
Households are asked about every person living at the property, including their age, race, occupation and relationship status
The information gathered provides a snapshot of the population, including its size and the age of people
Central and local governments can use this data to plan for housing, education, health care, and transport services
Additionally, it makes it possible to track changes over time, like population size
The census questionnaire was able to completed online for the first time in 2021
Evaluation of postal questionnaires
Advantages of postal questionnaires | Limitations of postal questionnaires |
|---|---|
Quick and efficient way of obtaining lots of information from large samples spanning a wide geographical area. The data is likely to be representative. | Postal questionnaires would be unsuitable for some populations, such as the homeless or those with literacy problems. |
Cheaper than interviews, as an interviewer does not need to be present when respondents are completing the questionnaire. | As the interviewer is not present to clarify any questions, this may lead to misunderstandings or questions answered incorrectly. |
Respondents may be more willing to answer personal and sensitive questions as the researcher is not present. | Respondents may give answers that present them in a positive light (social desirability bias). This means that the data collected lacks validity. |
The questions are standardised, so each respondent answers an identical set of questions. This means answers can be compared and differences between participants can be easily analysed. | The standardised questions and possible answers have been decided in advance. This is a limitation, as a respondent's answer may not fit one of the options provided, so they lack flexibility. |
Standardised questions also mean that replication is possible. Other researchers can replicate the questionnaire to check whether the findings are reliable or consistent. | Response rates are usually low, especially if the questionnaires are lengthy. Those who do not respond to the questionnaire may not be representative of the population, therefore making generalisation difficult. |
Closed questions provide quantitative data, so it is possible to statistically measure relationships between factors, such as gender and earned income. | Closed questions do not allow respondents to develop their answers, as there is no opportunity to explain why they selected a certain option. Therefore, the data lacks validity. |
Worked Example
Here is an example of a research methods question in context:
Identify and explain one disadvantage of using postal questionnaires to investigate attitudes towards cohabitation.
[4 marks]
Model Answer:
Identify the disadvantage in the context of the question:
A disadvantage is that there is a lack of flexibility as the respondent's attitude towards cohabitation may not fit one of the options provided.
Elaborate in the context of the question:
This is a weakness because postal questionnaires close off, rather than open up, new and interesting issues and areas about people's attitudes towards cohabitation. Therefore the data collected on how people feel about cohabitation lacks validity.
Level 4 response: 4 marks
Interviews: structured
Interviews are carried out face-to-face or via telephone
There are different types of interviews: structured, semi-structured and unstructured
Structured interviews are like questionnaires in that they consist of closed questions which are standardised so that all respondents are asked the same questions in the same order
Another similarity between structured interviews and questionnaires is that they collect quantitative data
Due to their similarities, structured interviews and questionnaires share some advantages and disadvantages
Evaluation of structured interviews
Advantages of structured interviews | Limitations of structured interviews |
|---|---|
The questions are standardised, so each respondent answers an identical set of questions in the same order. Responses can be easily analysed to reveal any real differences in their attitudes or experiences. | Interview bias is a problem, as the interview situation may influence interviewees to give answers that they think are socially acceptable or present them in a positive light (social desirability bias). This means that the data collected lacks validity. |
Closed questions provide quantitative data, so it is possible to statistically measure the strength of a connection between factors. | Interviewer characteristics (such as age, gender, ethnicity, and appearance) may influence the respondents' answers. The interviewer effect means that the data collected lacks validity. |
Standardised questions also mean that other researchers can repeat the interview to check whether the findings are reliable and if any changes occur over time. | The standardised questions and possible answers have been decided in advance. This is a limitation, as the respondent cannot express their own views as there is little flexibility and no opportunity to ask follow-up questions. |
Interviewers are trained so they will be able to clarify the meaning of questions and clear up any misunderstandings. | More costly than questionnaires, as an interviewer needs to be trained and be present when respondents are answering questions. |
The interviewer can ensure that all questions are fully completed, whereas this is not possible with a postal questionnaire. | Some feminists dislike structured interviews as they believe them to be based on unequal power relationships between the interviewer and interviewee. |
Worked Example
Here is an example of a research methods question in context:
Identify and explain one disadvantage of using structured interviews to investigate conjugal role relationships.
[4 marks]
Model Answer:
Identify the disadvantage in the context of the question:
A disadvantage is that the quality of the data gathered does not allow for the collection of in-depth qualitative data about conjugal relationships.
Elaborate in the context of the question:
This is a weakness because structured interviews are based on a pre-set list of standardised questions. This means that the researcher is imposing their own prior assumptions and thus cannot gain a full insight into conjugal relationships. This prevents the researcher from drawing valid conclusions.
Level 4 response: 4 marks
Longitudinal studies
Researchers may employ a cross-sectional or longitudinal study in research involving questionnaires or interviews
Longitudinal studies are usually associated with quantitative data but qualitative longitudinal research is also possible
Types of longitudinal design
There are two types of longitudinal design, according to Bryman (2016):
A panel study where a randomly selected sample is surveyed on two or more occasions
Such as the Understanding Society survey that aims to build a picture of how respondents lives are changing over time
A cohort study where everyone in the cohort shares a characteristic or experience and they are surveyed at regular intervals
Such as the 1970 British Cohort Study, which has monitored the health, education and social and economic circumstances of babies born in 1970
There have been nine data collections (or 'sweeps') of the cohort members since 1970
Evaluation of longitudinal studies
Advantages of longitudinal studies | Advantages of longitudinal studies |
Longitudinal studies allow researchers to examine social changes over time rather than capturing just one moment in time. | Longitudinal studies are relatively expensive and time-consuming due to the time scale involved. |
Researchers can also study changes in individuals daily lives, behaviour, values and opinions. | There are problems with maintaining contact with the original sample over time as people move house or disappear for periods of time. |
Longitudinal studies can often use a smaller sample size because they focus on following a smaller group of people over time. | People may change their minds and decide to withdraw from the study (this is known as attrition), so generalisations are difficult to make as the sample size reduces. |
Worked Example
Here is an example of a research methods question in context:
Identify and explain one advantage of using a longitudinal study to investigate changing attitudes towards marriage.
[4 marks]
Model Answer:
Identify the advantage in the context of the question:
An advantage is that they allow researchers to observe attitudes towards marriage over an extended period of time.
Elaborate in the context of the question:
This is a strength because the sociologist can identify patterns or trends in attitudes towards marriage, such as whether they are positive or negative. Insight is gained on factors affecting attitudes towards marriage, e.g. secularisation which allows the researcher to draw valid conclusions.
Level 4 response: 4 marks
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Positivist sociologists prefer quantitative research methods such as large-scale surveys, as they gather facts and figures to describe society in statistical terms.
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