Observations: Types (AQA GCSE Psychology)

Naturalistic or controlled observation?

• An observation is a non-experimental method although some observations may use manipulation of an independent variable (e.g. Bandura, 1961 observed children who had been exposed to either an aggressive or a non-aggressive adult model)

• Observers can only investigate observable behaviours i.e. what they can see (e.g. a child hits the doll with a mallet)

• Observers cannot infer motive, intention, feeling or thought from an observation (e.g. a child ignores the doll because they are not interested in it)

• A naturalistic observation is one in which the researcher observes and records behaviours in a natural setting, away from the lab, with no manipulation of an IV, e.g:

  • Children are observed in the school playground 

  • Shoppers are observed in a supermarket 

  • The crowd at a sporting event is observed

• Participants in a naturalistic observation may be unaware that they are being observed as they are simply going about their regular, everyday activities

• A controlled observation is one in which the researcher implements a level of control, e.g.:

  • Zimbardo’s (1973) prison study randomly allocated participants to the role of prisoner/guard i.e. the roles were artificial

  • Bandura’s (1961) Bobo doll study used a standardised procedure in lab conditions

• Participants know that they are taking part in a controlled observation as they must be recruited for the study and then set a specific task which is likely to be quite removed from their everyday activities/experience

Covert or overt observation?

• In an overt observation:

  • Participants are aware that they are being observed and may have been informed of this in advance

  • Participants may be able to see the researcher observing them 

  • E.g. The participants in Zimbardo’s prison study were aware that they were being observed by the researcher and that cameras were filming them

• In a covert observation:

  • Participants are not aware that they are being observed and will not have been informed of this in advance

  • Participants cannot see the researcher observing them

  • The only ethical way to conduct covert observation is to observe behaviour in the public context i.e. this would be happening anyway, regardless of the observation taking place

Participant or non-participant observation?

• In a participant observation:

  • The researcher (and possibly confederate of the researcher) join the group they are observing, becoming part of them

  • Participants may not be aware (in fact it is highly likely that the observation is covert) that the researcher is an outsider who is observing them

  • Rosenhan (1973) and 8 confederates had themselves falsely admitted to mental hospitals and kept a record of what they observed during their time there

  • Piliavin et al. (1969) blended in with New York subway passengers in their study of bystander behaviour

  • Note how both Rosenhan’s and Piliavin’s studies are naturalistic, covert observations as well

• In a non-participant observation:

  • The researcher stays separate and apart from the group they are observing

  • Participants may or may not be aware that they are being observed i.e. this type of observation can be overt or covert

  • Bandura’s Bobo doll study involved the researcher observing the children’s behaviour from another room via a one-way mirror

  • Ainsworth (1970) observed toddler-mother interactions via a one-way mirror

  • Note how both Bandura’s and Ainsworth’s studies are controlled, overt observations as well

Evaluation of observations

Strengths

• Observations - particularly those which are naturalistic and covert - are high in validity as real, unforced behaviour is measured

• Observations which use multiple observers can be checked for inter-observer reliability

Weaknesses

• There are ethical concerns with covert observations which means that conducting such research is problematic

• The researcher may bring their own bias to the research process i.e. they may observe what fits their expectations rather than what is happening