The Theory of Reconstructive Memory (AQA GCSE Psychology)
Revision Note
Written by: Claire Neeson
Reviewed by: Cara Head
How reliable is memory?
Memory is not like a camera, it does not record an event with 100% accuracy, rather it is:
retrieved as fragments of the event rather than as a whole, intact memory
sometimes key pieces of information are omitted or inserted
information which was not present at the time of the event may find its way into the memory
sometimes the sequence of events is recalled in a different order to the original
sometimes the memory is influenced by other people’s recall of the event or by media reports of the event
Information after the event is one way in which reconstructive memory (RM) may be manifest, for example:
you are present at a birthday party but your recall of the party will be influenced by:
discussing it with others afterwards
viewing photos of the party on social media
your memories of other birthday parties you have attended in the past
Confabulation is another way in which RM occurs in which recall of the event is impacted by distortion of the information, fabrication of details, misinterpretation of the information
Having predetermined/set ideas about the world can interfere with accurate recall - this happens when someone recalls an event not as it truly happened but as a result of schematic interference i.e. their schemas‘got in the way’ of 100% accurate recall of the event (generally people are unaware of this happening)
Schemas are relevant to RM as they produce biased recall
Cultural schemas may lead to incorrect and faulty recall of material which does not align with or fit into a person’s schema based on their own culture
The concept of effort after meaning
Effort after meaning refers to energy invested in attempting to understand unfamiliar terms, ideas or concepts by re-framing them using existing schemas, knowledge or ideas
In terms of memory formation, when an event occurs or information is taken in, the individual experiences a general, overall interpretation of that event/information
Issues with recall arise when the event/information includes unfamiliar details
It is more difficult to fit unfamiliar information into memory so what tends to happen is that the general meaning of the event/information is re-visited afterwards and effort is put into making the unfamiliar detail familiar (which is what happened in Bartlett’s study)
Effort after meaning usually happens unconsciously, without people being aware that they are reconstructing the original event in their memory
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Remember to link the theory of reconstructive memory to Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study, particularly on a higher-value AO3 question.
Evaluation of the theory of reconstructive memory
Strengths
Research into eyewitness testimony (particularly that of Elizabeth Loftus) highlights how important it is to avoid witnesses in a criminal trial giving unreliable accounts of what they observed, thus reconstructive memory has good application
There is research support for the theory, for example:
Loftus & Palmer (1974) asked participants to watch videos of a staged car crash
The participants were asked one of five different leading questions about what they had witnessed
The results showed that participants who were given a leading question with a stronger verb e.g. ‘smashed’ estimated higher car speeds than those with ‘softer’ verbs
In short, the participants used effort after meaning to make sense of what they had seen
Weaknesses
Some research e.g. Yuille & Cutshall (1986) found that eyewitnesses to a real-life shooting were not affected by leading questions i.e. reconstructive memory may not occur if the event was highly personal and emotional
It is almost impossible to measure how schemas may impact memory as:
each person’s schemas will be unique to them
schemas cannot be observed or quantified
Worked Example
Here is an example of an A01 and A02 question you might be asked on this topic.
AO1: You need to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of key concepts, ideas, theories and research.
AO2: You need to apply your knowledge and understanding, usually referring to the ‘stem’ in order to do so (the stem is the example given before the question).
A police officer is reading the statements of two eyewitnesses. Both statements describe the same traffic accident which happened on the town’s high street. The first eyewitness described hearing the screech of car tyres and breaking glass. The second eyewitness described seeing tyre marks on the road and a smashed red tail light.
Q. Use your knowledge of the theory of reconstructive memory to explain why each eyewitness gave different descriptions of the traffic accident.
[6 marks]
Model answer:
AO1:
Memory is not like a video recording or a camera; it tends to pick up fragments of events
This ‘piecing together’ process of memory may not be an accurate version of events
Memory is an active process in which we try to make sense of events using pre-existing schemas, knowledge and experience (effort after meaning).
We can alter our memories so that they fit in with our social and cultural expectations/schemas
Information after the event i.e. conversations with others and media coverage can produce reconstructed memory
AO2:
The two eyewitnesses gave different descriptions of the same traffic accident because they made sense of the events they saw in different ways.
Their own experiences and expectations such as what they have heard in the news or seen in films will shape how they remember the accident
One eyewitness may have expected tyres screeching and glass breaking which explains why they recall these details
The other eyewitness may have previously seen tyre marks and smashed lights at the scene of a traffic accident which explains why they remember these details
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