Exploitation of Polar Environments (OCR GCSE Geography B)
Revision Note
Written by: Jacque Cartwright
Reviewed by: Bridgette Barrett
Value of Polar Environments
Approximately 70% of the world's freshwater supply is locked in ice (glaciers, permafrost, ice caps and ice sheets) - the Arctic region holds roughly 10% with the Antarctic holding 60% of the world's freshwater supply
During the Cold War, military bases were established in polar regions and Alaska became a strategic point for the USA due to its proximity to Russia. Distant Early Warning systems for potential nuclear attack from Russia to the USA were built
Other values include:
Scientific research
Indigenous people
Whaling
Mineral extraction
Energy
Fishing
Tourism
Scientific research
Data collected from ice cores is used for research into past climate conditions
The 'clean' atmosphere helps astronomers and planetary scientists conduct extensive research in Antarctica using the telescopes based there
Scientists launch instruments on balloons and hunt for meteorites on the Antarctic ice
Geologists monitor the subsurface lakes and minerals
Weather data is monitored at the poles
Observe sea ice thickness, animal populations, and effects of climate change
Indigenous people
No permanent inhabitants in the Antarctic
The Arctic has a population of approximately 4 million people and includes the Sami and Inuit who have lived sustainably for hundreds of years
Some groups are nomadic, following herds of caribou/reindeer, whilst others hunt marine animals
All are well adapted to the harsh living conditions and many traditions are linked to land and sea
From the 18th century, Europeans exploited the resources of the region and drove many species of seals and whales to near extinction
Land and resources, that once belonged to the indigenous people, were often taken by force
Canada created Nunavut as a new territory in 1999 in an attempt towards returning land and resources to the local indigenous people
Whaling
The Inuit hunted whales for their oil, meat and bones on a small, sustainable scale
During the 19th and early 20th century, whaling by Europeans became an industrial process
Thousands of whales were hunted and killed every year. Whaling stations were established to process the whales and ship them around the world
Products from whales included:
Whalebone for women's corsets and hooped skirts
Bone for tools, combs and carving
Oil for lighting and cosmetics
Fat for candles, soap and margarine
Meat for protein
When kerosene, petroleum, and other fossil fuels became popular and more reliable than whale oil, the whaling industry declined
By the early 20th century, severe overfishing left many species of whale almost extinct
In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up to conserve whales and control the whaling industry
By 1986, a ban on commercial whales was introduced with a few exceptions
Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was set up, banning all commercial whaling in the area. Sanctuaries focus on the protection of calves and females
Mineral extraction:
There are valuable reserves of gold, silver, iron ore and copper
Large oil and gas reserves in the Arctic (e.g. Prudhoe Bay, Alaska) as well as other mineral deposits (e.g. uranium and phosphate in Russia)
Energy
Gas and oil are abundant
The US government is extracting oil from the oilfields near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska
Fishing
The cold coastal waters have good fish stocks
These waters attract commercial fishing
The deep, cold water is ideal for unusual fish which command a high price in markets around the globe
Tourism
Places such as Antarctica have seen an increase in the number of tourists
Approximately 170,000 tourists visited Antarctica in 2020
Adventure tourism to extreme cold environments is a growth industry for countries and local communities
Human Impacts on Polar Environments
There are several impacts that human activity has caused in polar regions from the value gained
Activity | Antarctic | Arctic |
|---|---|---|
Scientific research | The cost to keep a scientist in Antarctica is approximately $1 million a year, so competition for research is high Due to the remoteness and extreme conditions, scientists have to undergo physical and psychological screening before being accepted Scientists have left rubbish and broken equipment which has polluted the land and sea, damaged habitats and posed a risk to wildlife Research stations and ships produce chemical and sewage pollution Huskie dogs were used as companions and transportation but also posed a threat of infecting seals and penguins | RSS David Attenborough will add to pollution within the Arctic waters Researchers have dumped rubbish and brought non-native invasive species on their shoes Research stations and ships produce chemical and sewage pollution |
Indigenous people | None | Only take what they need so don’t upset the balance of the ecosystem Many indigenous people now live in towns and cities (e.g. Anchorage, Canada). These urban areas impact the environment through waste disposal, air and noise pollution from vehicles, and heat from buildings which melts the permafrost |
Whaling | Despite a ban on whaling, Japan continues to hunt whales in Antarctica and its industry is government subsidise under the guise of scientific research As with the Arctic, commercial whaling brought many species of whales to the brink of extinction Whales are very slow breeders so it takes a long time for their population to recover | Bowhead whale lives all year round and hunted to almost extinction Whales are still hunted by Iceland and Norway and Indigenous people (although this is considered sustainable as they take only what they need) Minke, Fin and Humpback whales remain the main species still hunted in the Arctic waters |
Fishing | Over-fishing threatens many species (e.g. in Antarctica the Patagonian toothfish has been fished to near extinction) | The Arctic waters provide 70% of the world’s white fish catch Reduced fish populations have knock-on effects on other species in the food chain (i.e. the larger fish and birds that eat them) Some species are also affected by getting caught in fishing lines and drowning (e.g. albatross) |
Mineral extraction | Not allowed under the Antarctic Treaty of 1994 | Many countries are increasing their mining activities beneath the tundra Russia has exploited a large portion of the tundra to extract minerals The extraction process of metals produces pollution, damaging local ecosystems |
Energy | Not allowed under the Antarctic Treaty of 1994 However, energy used to heat research stations has led to melting ice and damage to the ice sheets | The heat from the terminal buildings, worker's homes and transport to and from the oil fields has led to permafrost melt and buildings subsiding Oil spills are difficult to clean up and can harm habitats and wildlife Pipelines are used to transport oil and gas but have melted the permafrost below Pipelines have also disrupted the migration routes of caribou/reindeer herds |
Tourism | An Antarctic cruise can cost as much as £10,000 and visits are concentrated in the more accessible but highly sensitive areas Tourists disrupt breeding colonies of penguins and seals In the summer months, there are queues of cruise liners in Fildes Bay; fuel spills and collisions between vessels and marine life have occurred In some areas, tourists have walked over delicate mosses and plants, and some historic structures have been damaged by graffiti There is concern over the introduction of non-native species which could alter food webs, changing the ecosystem irreversibly | Tourism increases shipping and air travel, leading to water and air pollution There is also an increased risk of boats grounding, which can cause oil spills Trampling damages fragile vegetation and erodes the landscape, leaving paths As decomposition rates are so slow in the cold temperatures, litter and waste disposal damages habitats and threatens wildlife |
Worked Example
Study Fig. 2, which shows the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline in North America.
Using Fig. 2, identify one environmental impact of resource extraction in Arctic Polar regions.
(1 mark)
Answer
The image shows that the habitat has been damaged [1] as there is a trampled pathway through cut trees next to the pipeline
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