Global Variations in Economic Development (AQA GCSE Geography): Revision Note

Classifications of economic development

• Development is the improvement in people's standard of living 

• This improvement may be:

  • Economic – growth of the economy due to changes in economic activities and technology

  • Social – improvement in people's health, education, water and food supply

  • Environmental – more sustainable use of the environment

• These different components are not independent of each other but linked

  • For example, both health and the environment depend on income, which in turn may impact happiness

• Development is not a smooth, continuous process

• It can be slowed down, halted, and even reversed through:

  • War/conflict

  • Disease

  • Disasters 

  • Economic recession

• Development can happen through:

  • Investment in agriculture (tractors, fertilisers, etc.) improves food supplies, which in turn improves the health of people

  • Improvements in supplies of power to rural areas 

  • Improvements in access to education for females and overall literacy rates

• Levels of development vary on a local, national and international scale

• There are differences between areas of the same city, the same country and between countries

  • Germany is more developed than Mexico, but Egypt is less developed than Mexico

• On a global scale, we can classify a country's development into one of three categories:

  • Low-income countries (LICs): Most people have a poor quality of life with inadequate services and few opportunities

  • Newly emerging economies (NEEs): Countries experiencing rapid economic growth and development based on industrial development. Incomes are rising and most people enjoy a reasonable standard of living

  • High-income countries (HICs): Countries that have modern industries and people enjoy a good standard of living with relatively high levels of income 

• The differences between low and high development is known as the development gap

Economic & social measures of development

• Development is hard to measure accurately, as it covers so many features or strands

• It is measured using indicators 

• Social indicators include:

  • Quality of life and social well-being

  • Equal opportunities, access to services such as education and healthcare

  • Life expectancy, birth control, education

  • Diversity, traditions and heritage

• Economic indicators include:

  • Employment, income and general wealth 

  • Savings, house building, house sales, consumer spending International trade

  • Resources, pollution controls and conservation

• Individual indicators are misleading when used alone, as some features develop before others

  • This may indicate that a country is more developed than it really is

• By using multiple indicators as a measure of development, a clearer picture of that country's development is produced

• A country's GDP (gross domestic product), GNI (gross national income), and GNP (gross national product) are the traditional measures used to measure wealth

Measures of development

Gross domestic product (GDP)

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita is the total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year divided by the population of the country

• It is a measure of economic - wealth

• A high GDP improves development

• High effect on development

Gross national income (GNI)

• Gross national income (GNI) is the total income earned by a country's people and businesses, even if it was earned outside the country

• It is a measure of national economic wealth that can be used as an alternative to GDP

• GNI increases development

Human development index (HDI)

• This uses life expectancy, literacy rate, education level and GNI to calculate a country's score between 0 (least developed) and 1 (most developed)

• The UN created the Human Development Index (HDI) in 1990 as a better way of measuring disparities between countries

• The higher the HDI, the higher the level of development and quality of life

  • Norway has the highest HDI at 0.957  (2024)

  • Niger has the lowest HDI at 0.394 (2024)

Literacy rate

• This measures the percentage of adults who can read and write

• It is a social-education indicator

• The lower the rate, the lower the development of the country

Life expectancy

• The average number of years a person can expect to live to

• It is a social-health indicator

• The lower the age, the lower the development

People per doctor

• This measures the average number of people that could be seen by a doctor at any one time

• This is a social – health and educationindicator

• The lower the number of doctors, the lower the level of health care, but also a lack of suitable education to train people

Birth rate

• This is the number of live births per 1,000 of the total population in one year

• This is a social – women's rights indicator

• The lower the birth rate, the higher the development. Women have access to better health care

Infant mortality rate

• This is the number of children that do not survive to their first birthday per 1,000 babies born

• This is a social – health indicator

• The higher the number, the lower the development

  • Over 18 countries have an infant mortality rate of over 50 per 1000

    • These are all developing countries

    • Most of these countries are in Sub-Saharan Africa

Death rate

• This is the number of deaths per 1,000 of the country's population in a year

• This is a social – health indicator

• The lower the number, the higher the development

Access to safe water

• This is the percentage of people who have access to safe drinking water

• This is a social – health indicator

• The higher the rate, the higher the level of development

Limitations of economic & social measures

Gross domestic product (GDP)

• GDP ignores the welfare component, as the goods and services produced may or may not add to the welfare of society

• Pollution or even happiness leaves out some production in an economy, such as homegrown food

Gross national income (GNI)

• The measure only takes into account one factor – income

• It is an average calculation so a few wealthy people can distort the figures

• Data about income is sensitive so people may not always be honest about their earnings

• People working in the informal sector and 'stay-at-home' parents are not taken into account

• GNI per head is an average and hides information about whether a person is either rich or poor or the quality of life within the country

Human development index (HDI)

• The index only takes into account four indicators of development and the statistics provided by some countries may be unreliable and is subjective

• The HDI is a general measure that relies on average calculations

• It does not take into account disparities (differences) that might exist within a country

Literacy rate

• This can be hard to measure in LICs due to lack of monitoring

• Conflict zones and squatter settlements are difficult areas to measure literacy rates

Life expectancy

• Data is not always reliable, especially in LICs

• It can be misleading in countries with a very high rate of infant mortality, as people who survive infancy may live longer than expected 

People per doctor

• More people are seeking medical help and advice via mobile phone/web chat – this is not included in the data

Birth rate

• Some countries may have low birth rates but are quite poor (e.g. Cuba at 10 per 1000 – this is due to political decisions to invest more money in healthcare over other sectors)

• Birth control policies can distort this as a measure of overall development (e.g.,China, 12 per 1000)

Infant mortality rate

• Not all the deaths of children are reported, especially in LICs and remote regions of NEEs, meaning the true rates may be even higher

Death rate

• By comparison, death rate is a less reliable measure of development than birth rate

• Birth rates can be high in some LICs due to poverty but also high in HICs where many people die of old age

Access to safe water

• Data collection in LICs is not likely to be accurate and so official figures can underestimate the issue

• People may technically have access, but high costs force people to use unsafe water 

• Leaking pipes and natural disasters may deprive people of piped water

Demographic transition model

• The demographic transition model (DTM) illustrates the five generalised stages of population change that countries pass through as they develop

• The graph is based on the changes that took place in western countries such as the UK

• It shows how birth and death rates change over time and how this affects the overall population as the country 

• The gap between the birth rate and death rate is called natural change

Stage 1

• The total population is low 

• High birth rates due to lack of contraception/family planning 

• High death rates due to poor healthcare, poor diet and famine

• High infant mortality, which leads people to have more children so that some children survive to adulthood

• Example: Traditional rainforest tribes in parts of Indonesia, Brazil and Malaysia have small groups of people living separately with little contact with the outside world. They have a high birth rate and death rate

Stage 2

• The total population starts to rise rapidly

• Birth rates remain high as people continue to have large families

• Death rates decrease as a result of improved diets, better healthcare, lower infant mortality and increased access to clean water

• Example: Afghanistan has a birth rate of 30 per 1000 and its death rate is 12 per 1000. About 80% of its population are farmers who need children to support them in the fields and tending livestock

Stage 3

• The total population continues to increase but the rate of growth begins to slow

• Birth rate begins to fall rapidly due to increased birth control, family planning, increased cost of raising children and low infant mortality rate 

• Death rate still decreasing but at a slower rate as improvements in medicine, hygiene, diet and water quality continue

• Example: Nigeria, an NEE, is experiencing rapid economic growth. The death rate is much lower than the birth rate; therefore, the country’s population is growing rapidly

Stage 4

• The total population is high and is increasing slowly 

• Birth rate is low and fluctuating due to accessible birth control and the choice of having fewer children as well as delaying the age women start to have children

• Death rate is low and fluctuating 

• Example: The USA is one of the most developed countries in the world and has good-quality health care, which means death rates are low (8 per 1000). Women tend to have smaller families and choose to study and follow careers, which keeps the birth rate lower at 13 per 1000. Population growth is due mainly to immigration

Stage 5

• The total population starts to slowly decline as the death rate exceeds the birth rate 

• Birth rate is low and slowly decreasing

• Death rate is low and fluctuating

• Example: South Korea has the lowest birth rate in the world at 0.81 children per woman. In comparison, the average rate across the world's HICs is 1.6 children per woman. A country needs at least 2.1 children per couple to keep their population at the same size without relying on migration

Causes of uneven development

• The development gap is a complex problem with many factors

• These factors can become less or more important over time

Physical causes of uneven development

• Landlocked countries are cut-off from seaborne trade routes which are important to economic growth

  • Africa has some of the most landlocked countries on earth. E.g. Chad

• Small countries develop more slowly due to having fewer human and natural resources

• Climate-related diseases and pests such as Malaria, affect the ability of the population to stay healthy enough to work

  • Locust swarms can decimate crops

• Extreme weather events such as droughts, floods and tropical storms can slow development and can incur costly repairs to infrastructure, e.g. Bangladesh

• Limited access to clean water can slow development by making people sick and unable to work. e.g. Angola

• The physical geography also impacts the natural resources available

• The natural resources are those things provided by the physical environment and include:

  • Water for domestic use or hydropower

  • Forests for timber, food or medicines

  • Fossil fuels for energy

  • Soil for food production

  • Rocks for construction

  • Animals for food, fur and skins

• Some countries are able to meet all their needs from the natural resources they have

• Many countries have to import some natural resources that are not available within their borders

• When countries have to import natural resources, this means they do not have the security of supply as imports could be affected by war or political issues

• Water, food and energy security are particularly important to support a country's development

Economic causes of uneven development

• Poverty

  • A lack of money in a country slows development because it prevents improvements to living standards, education, sanitation and infrastructure

  • Without these, development in agriculture and industry will be slow and the economy cannot get going

• Trade

  • Wealthy regions, such as Asia, Europe and North America, dominate trade because they export secondary (processed) goods which earn more income

  • As these countries accumulate wealth, they become more powerful

  • Which means they are able to dictate the terms of trade to their advantage, usually at the expense of LICs

• Technology

  • Can help to increase water, food and energy security

  • Mechanisation of farming increases yields and improved land surveying may reveal more energy sources

  • Technology can also mean that existing resources are used more efficiently

Historical causes of uneven development

• Colonisation: 

  • Many LICs were colonised by powerful trading nations such as France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium and the UK for their resources and people

    • Over 10 million people were transported from Africa to North America as slaves

  • It was during this time that global development became uneven

  • Many countries gained independence in the 20th century, but they still face power struggles and civil wars due to a long history of exploitation

  • Many continue to deal with development challenges

• Conflict:

  • Wars reduce levels of development, as men are often fighting instead of working

  • Money is used buying weapons rather than improving the country’s roads, schools, hospitals, etc.

  • There is damage to infrastructure such as buildings and roads

Social causes of uneven development

• Levels of education affect the skills people have. The more educated a population is, the more a country will develop

• Healthcare affects how well people are, which affects their ability to work

• Lack of equality can mean that the overall productivity of a country is affected

• Demography

  • The population structure of a country

  • The birth and death rates, as well as immigration, affect the available workforce

  • Those countries where birth rates have fallen the most show the highest rates of growth 

• Government policies

  • The stability and effectiveness of government can have a significant impact on development and human welfare

  • Development and human welfare are greatest where there is a democratically elected government

  • Corrupt governments do not invest in the country's development or in improving the quality of life for the population

  • A government's economic policy influences both development and human welfare in the following ways:

    • Open economy: where foreign investment is encouraged, which generates faster development

    • Higher rates of saving and lower spending compared to GDP, results in further development

Effects of uneven development

• Imbalance between rich and poor

  • Some countries have lower levels of development and poorer quality of life than others.

  • Imbalances also exist within countries

• Disparities in wealth: In 2014 the fastest growth of wealth was in North America, which holds 35% of global 
  wealth. Africa’s share of global wealth is about 1%. 

• Disparities in health: There is a link between a country’s development and the health of its population

  • LICs are unable to invest in good-quality health care, which creates disparities between the causes of death in HICs and LICs

  • LICs tend to have higher complications during childbirth

  • Higher rates of infectious diseases, e.g., HIV and Malaria

  • HICs main cause of death is chronic diseases, e.g., cancer, with fewer infant mortality

• Inequality can lead to migration

  • Migration is the movement of people from place to place, which can be voluntary or forced

  • International migration is a consequence of uneven development, as people seek to improve their quality of life

  • Movement can be two ways: Poor wanting a better life or the rich not wanting to live near squatter settlements

  • Mexico, an NEE, borders the USA an HIC; every year over 130,000 Mexicans migrate to the USA legally, yet thousands enter illegally hoping for a better quality of life and paid jobs

• International migration can have positive effects on countries

  • Since the Arab Spring uprising in 2010, thousands of people have migrated into Europe from war-torn regions of the Middle East and North Africa (e.g. Syria, Libya, and Yemen)

  • Risking their lives to cross the Mediterranean into Italy, Turkey, Greece and then especially onto Germany

  • It is estimated that in 2016 alone, 1.1 million migrants entered Germany

  • As Germany is at stage 5 of the DTM with a declining population, this influx of migrants could potentially benefit Germany's future economy