Urban Change in HICs (AQA GCSE Geography): Revision Note

Exam code: 8035

Jacque Cartwright

Written by: Jacque Cartwright

Reviewed by: Bridgette Barrett

Updated on

Distribution of population & cities in the UK

  • The UK population is distributed unevenly 

  • Major cities have the highest population densities

    • They are usually in flat, low-lying areas, especially along the coast or near major rivers

  • The fastest-growing cities are in southeast England, where many cities have turned into conurbations 

  • This is also the region with the fastest-growing economy at present

  • Mineral wealth like coal, lead, tin, and iron ore led to the development of many cities near these resources, such as the coal mines of Newcastle, which caused rapid population growth

  • Relief affects population density because it is harder to develop on mountainous terrain than in lowland areas like Birmingham, London, and Cardiff

  • Some coastal areas have a higher population density, especially where sheltered estuaries allow for the construction of key ports and harbours 

    • Fishing ports of Grimsby, Whitby (England) and Portavogie in Northern Ireland

    • Liverpool, Bristol, and Southampton serve as important trade ports

  • London is the capital and the largest city in the UK, with 9.5 million people and a global financial centre

  • Birmingham has a population of 1.1 million, making it the second largest city

Map of the United Kingdom and Ireland showing major cities such as London, Manchester, Belfast, Edinburgh, Dublin, and Cardiff, marked by black dots.
Major cities of the UK

Populations within cities

  • People within city boundaries are distributed in a complex way, influenced by past events

  • All towns and cities tend to grow outwards, from a historic centre or core to an urban fringe

  • Each zone grew due to the needs of the city during its development over time

  • As a general rule, all towns and cities, regardless of place or level of development, show the same four features:

  • central core: the oldest part of a city with features such as:

    • Low residential population

    • The central business district (CBD), e.g. banks, retail and commercial offices

    • Multi-storey development, with vertical growth rather than horizontal due to lack of space

  • An inner-city zone:

    • Older, compact, terraced 'worker' housing to support a growing population density 

    • Surrounded by older industrial areas

  • suburban zone: residential area:

    • Emergence of segregated residential zones based on wealth, ethnicity, choice or government policy (e.g. social housing)

    • Semi- and detached housing with gardens

    • Smaller retail premises

  • The urban fringe refers to the outer edges of the city.

    • Housing is clustered into estates, which increases 'spot' density

    • Countryside is eroded through the urban spread/sprawl 

    • Some industrial land uses

    • Accessibility is best

Urban process timeline

The flowchart illustrates the stages of urban development over time, including agglomeration, suburbanisation, commuting, urban regeneration, counter-urbanisation, and urban re-imagining.
Stages of urban development over time
  • Urban settlements first appear as a result of agglomeration:

    • People gather together in one area to sell goods and live

    • Small trading posts and villages begin to develop

  • As towns grow, they expand outward through a process known as suburbanisation

    • This adds to the built-up area, but the building densities are generally lower than in the older parts of the town

    • The new suburbs are made up of mostly houses but also include places of employment and services

  • Urban settlements continue to prosper and grow, while many people move out of the town or city entirely and commute to work.

    • These are called commuter settlements because many residents only sleep there and travel into work

    • They continue to have links with the town or city they have left

    • They still make use of urban services, shops, education, and healthcare

Impacts of national & international migration

What is migration?

  • Migration is the movement of people across an official boundary, either internationally or nationally, with the intention of creating a permanent place of residence

  • The UN defines the term 'permanent' as a change of residence for more than 1 year

Impact of national migration on the UK

  • Migration has shaped the UK and has impacted economically, culturally, politically and environmentally 

  • The UK's economic development was the largest impact on the population density

  • Prior to the 18th century, the majority of UK residents lived in rural areas, relying on agriculture as their main form of employment

  • During the 19th century the industrial revolution saw a rapid rise in the number of people concentrated in cities as they migrated from the rural regions seeking employment in the better-paying secondary sector 

  • Now in the UK's post-industrial phase, the population is spread around the cities, with urban sprawl a common feature 

  • This internal migration has led to the population density of the modern UK, where the majority of people live in urban areas

Impact of international migration on the UK

  • The UK has always experienced waves of migrants

    • During the 1850s Irish famine

    • 1950s from West Indies, seeking employment

    • From eastern Europe after EU enlargement and removal of barriers

    • Refugees from Syria and Ukraine, etc.

Out of the 59.6 million usual residents in England and Wales in 2021, 49.6 million (83.2%) were born in the UK and 10.0 million (16.8%) were born outside the UK. This means that about one in six people in England and Wales were born outside the UK - ONS 2021 census – International migration, England and Wales – OfficeWales - Office for National Statistics ( (opens in a new tab)ons.gov.uk (opens in a new tab)) (opens in a new tab)

  • India is still the most popular country of origin, with significant migration from Pakistan, Ireland and Poland

Effects of migration on urban growth

Positive

  • Skills gaps are filled

  • Culture is enriched

  • Birth rates are boosted

  • More low-wage workers

  • Support family in country of origin through remittances

  • Government tax revenue increases

  • Education opportunities as universities are found in UK cities

  • Youthful, single population and vibrant nightlife

Negative

  • Pressure on services, housing and infrastructure

  • Discrimination and racial tensions (immigrant seen as stealing jobs)

  • Overcrowding and congestion

  • Job competition 

  • Language barriers and cultural assimilation

  • Gender imbalance – more men tend to migrate than women

  • Migrants tend to be located together in large city areas

  • Families and retiring couples move out looking for a quieter, safer and less polluted environment

Immigration causes conflict

  • Not all UK citizens believe that immigration and multiculturalism are good for the UK

  • This was one of the main points of the Brexit vote of 2016

  • It has created tensions and conflict between communities, along with hate crimes against ethnic minorities

Opportunities of urban change

  • There are many opportunities with urban change, which can be categorised through social, economic and environmental 

Social

  • Cultural mix: Ethnic diversity due to the migration of people both with national and international migration

  • Recreation and entertainment: More opportunities for restaurants and leisure facilities 

Economic

  • Cultural events, such as Notting Hill Carnival and Chinese New Year, etc., are becoming popular in cities which attract tourists to these events, boosting local revenues

  • New jobs in construction and tourism create a multiplier effect

  • CBDs are centres of finance but also attract shoppers to new shopping centres 

  • Increase in hi-tech jobs and research; many universities have science parks on urban fringes

Environmental 

  • Integrated transport systems such as 'park and ride' reduce pollution and congestion within urban areas

  • Greening of urban areas to help with urban heat and pollution but also open parks and places for recreation

  • The decline of industries in various cities has resulted in the creation of wasteland and brownfield sites. Urban developers regenerate these areas into cycle and pedestrian routes around the city to improve the environment

Challenges of urban change

  • The challenges faced by High-Income Countries (HICs) can be categorised into three main areas:

    • Social

    • Economic

    • Environmental

  • These challenges vary and are unique to each city, but they can generally be categorised as follows: 

Social

  • The availability of

    • Social services and housing

    • Poverty and deprivation

    • Ethnic segregation

    • Quality of life

    • Ageing population

    • Tourism and crime

Economic

  • The impact of

    • Globalisation

    • Food supplies

    • Transport and traffic

    • Energy supply

    • Deindustrialisation

    • Service provision

Environmental

  • The level of

    • Pollution and waste disposal 

    • The level of sustainability

    • The size of the ecological footprint

    • Energy, land, and water use

    • Are there major hazard risks

    • The use of green spaces

General examples

Deprivation 

  • Deprivation is connected with poverty and occurs when a person’s well-being falls below an acceptable minimum standard

  • The minimum standard varies from country to country and applies to several different aspects of daily life

  • In the UK, there is a multiple deprivation index (MDI).

  • The UK MDI has 7 different indicators:

    • Income

    • Employment

    • Health

    • Education

    • Access to housing and services

    • Crime

    • Living environment

  • It is more than just not having enough money

Low quality of life

  • Poverty and deprivation are passed on from one generation to the next

  • Children will tend to get less parental support and usually have to attend inadequate schools

  • They also tend to leave school early with few qualifications

  • Lack of qualifications means they cannot find well-paid employment and rely on social handouts

  • Children they have will be born into this cycle and so families remain ‘trapped’ and unable to improve their circumstances

  • This feeds into a lower quality of life

Food, health, education and housing

  • Getting food for the million-plus inhabitants is difficult and food is often imported from other countries

  • Transportation costs add to the price the consumer has to pay

  • This also increases the carbon footprint of the city

  • With the development and regeneration programmes in cities, inequalities have increased between the wealthier and poor residents of the city

  • Poor-quality housing is one of the many causes of poor health due to coldness, overcrowding and mould

  • Unhealthy lifestyles, e.g., drinking, smoking and poor diets, are more common in inner-city areas and affect life expectancy

  • Many children in the inner-city area leave school without basic qualifications, leading to low incomes and high unemployment

  • Many inner-city schools are overcrowded and poorly maintained, resources are limited, and many teachers cannot afford to live in the city due to high rents or housing costs

Energy

  • All cities require energy for their residents and businesses

  • HICs have greater demands with modern-day electronics, heating, lighting and electric transport

  • As population grows, so does the demands of energy-hungry appliances; energy security is becoming an issue

  • Depending on the location, a variety of energy types are required. Wind power isn't possible for all cities or a continuously reliable source (not windy every day)

  • Regardless of how a city generates its energy, large amounts of resources will be used to add to a city's 'footprint'

Transport

  • Any large city will face problems with congestion on roads as the volume of people trying to get about the city

  • Cars and lorries will be polluting through exhaust emissions; buses and trains can be electric, reducing its impact

  • Despite technology helping more modern cars produce less pollution, the remaining city's transport infrastructure (rail, tube, buses, etc.) will also be under a lot of stress

Water

  • The supply of safe, clean water poses a major challenge for developed cities 

  • A megacity will often have a higher demand for water than it can supply

  • This means that water needs to be brought in from other areas or other solutions need to be drawn up, such as a desalination plant

Waste

  • Every person and business produce waste, making the combined rubbish of a city, huge

  • Much of this waste will end up going to landfill, which is both expensive and wasteful

  • Space is running out and new laws restrict the dumping of certain wastes in landfill sites, adding to a city's problems in dealing with its waste

Segregation

  • There is a tendency for people to live near others of similar backgrounds and status

  • This can be through employment, wealth, ethnicity, etc. 

  • This makes for little interaction between the groups, which isolates and limits social mobility

  • Isolation breeds fear and suspicion of 'differences' within the urban area

Dereliction

  • Industrial decline in the 20th century, along with dockland closures left mass unemployment in many of the inner-city areas

  • As factories shut down, large areas of derelict buildings were vandalised

  • These closures forced many people to move from the inner-city areas in search of jobs

  • This led to large numbers of terraced houses being boarded up

Development on rural-urban fringe

  • Also called the urban fringe, it is where green, open spaces meet the built-up areas of towns and cities

  • Growth at the urban fringe is due in part to counter-urbanisation, population growth, lack of space and spiralling land costs

  • These can be divided into push (negative factors causing people/businesses to leave central urban areas) and pull factors (positive factors pulling people/businesses to the rural-urban fringe):

Push and pull factors for the urban fringe

  • Push

    • Housing is old, congested and relatively expensive

    • There are various forms of environmental pollution – air quality is poor, and noise levels are high

    • Companies find that there is a shortage of land for expansion or building shops, offices and factories 

    •  Brownfield sites are expensive to build on due to the added costs of cleaning the land (especially if contaminated with asbestos) prior to building; plus, there may be restrictions on what can be built 

    • Access for heavy goods vehicles is limited or difficult, adding to congestion and air pollution

  • Pull

    • Land is cheaper so houses are larger and have gardens

    • Factories can be more spacious and have plenty of room for workers to park their cars

    • Closeness to main roads and motorways allows for quicker and easier customer contacts

    • Closeness to main roads and motorways allows for quicker and easier commutes for car drivers and access for lorries

    • Changing working patterns thanks to technology, e.g. flexible working, working from home, etc.

Urban sprawl

  • The outer edges of a city is the rural-urban fringe or urban fringe

  • Growth at the urban fringe is due in part to counter-urbanisation, population growth, lack of space and spiralling land costs

  • Urban growth, if left unchecked, leads to urban sprawl

  • Availability of space for housing, retail and manufacturing: Including options for expansion

  • Many services are now located at the urban fringe: Major hospitals, superstores, specialist manufacturing, etc. 

Issues include

  • Loss of farmland to build new homes

  • Impact on natural and built ecosystems

    • Removing trees increases pollution levels, etc.

  • Loss of rural way of life and character of the countryside

  • Loss of traditional 'green spaces'

    • School fields, parks, etc., are being built on

  • Creates impermeable surfaces and surface run-off

    • Higher risk of increased flooding

  • Higher emissions due to car dependency

    • People have to commute further

    • Increased traffic rates

  • Higher costs for public transport and social facilities

    • Local governments have to spread their budgets further

    • This further impacts healthcare, fire and policing facilities

  • Some urban areas have a planned and protected greenbelt

    • This means no development is allowed, but urban areas still need to grow 

  • Development in major cities has jumped over the greenbelt and created commuter towns

    • This is where people work in the city and live within traveling or commuting distance of their place of work

    • This increases pollution, congestion, and lost time, which lowers productivity

Commuter towns

  • These areas mainly consist of homes, schools, and retail outlets

  • Commuter towns raise local house prices, making them unaffordable for local people 

    • Villages in the South East of England, especially in Kent, Sussex, and Essex, sit on or near major train lines to London and other places

    • Families are moving out of London into newly built large homes in these villages, but the prices are too high for those already living in the area

  • This means two choices: either build on a greenfield or brownfield site

Brownfield vs greenfield developments

Brownfield

  • Brownfield site development reclaims land that was previously built on and puts it to another use, re-using space and saving land in the process

Advantages

  • Revives old and unused urban areas

  • It reduces the loss of countryside for farming or recreation

  • Water, electricity, and sewage services are already in place

  • These services sit close to major job centres

  • It lowers the chance of squatter settlements forming

Disadvantages

  • Old buildings often cost more to clear, and the land must be cleaned of pollution

  • It often has rundown areas, which does not attract wealthier people

  • More pollution

Greenfield

  • Greenfield sites are areas of land that have never been built on

Advantages

  • Healthier environment

  • Close to the countryside, leisure, and recreation

  • The layout is not restricted by the existing layout

  • Relatively cheap and rate of house building is faster

  • Access and infrastructure easier to build

Disadvantages

  • Valuable farmland is lost

  • Encourages further suburban sprawl

  • Wildlife and habitats are lost or disturbed

  • Recreational space and attractive scenery are lost

  • Limited access to public transport

  • Development creates noise and light pollution in the nearby countryside

  • Installing services like water, electricity, and sewage costs money

You've read 0 of your 5 free revision notes this week

Unlock more, it's free!

Join the 100,000+ Students that ❤️ Save My Exams

the (exam) results speak for themselves:

Jacque Cartwright

Author: Jacque Cartwright

Expertise: Geography Content Creator

Jacque graduated from the Open University with a BSc in Environmental Science and Geography before doing her PGCE with the University of St David’s, Swansea. Teaching is her passion and has taught across a wide range of specifications – GCSE/IGCSE and IB but particularly loves teaching the A-level Geography. For the past 5 years Jacque has been teaching online for international schools, and she knows what is needed to get the top scores on those pesky geography exams.

Bridgette Barrett

Reviewer: Bridgette Barrett

Expertise: Geography, History, Religious Studies & Environmental Studies Subject Lead

After graduating with a degree in Geography, Bridgette completed a PGCE over 30 years ago. She later gained an MA Learning, Technology and Education from the University of Nottingham focussing on online learning. At a time when the study of geography has never been more important, Bridgette is passionate about creating content which supports students in achieving their potential in geography and builds their confidence.