Urban Change in HICs (AQA GCSE Geography): Revision Note
Exam code: 8035
Distribution of population & cities in the UK
The UK population is distributed unevenly
Major cities have the highest population densities
They are usually in flat, low-lying areas, especially along the coast or near major rivers
The fastest-growing cities are in southeast England, where many cities have turned into conurbations
This is also the region with the fastest-growing economy at present
Mineral wealth like coal, lead, tin, and iron ore led to the development of many cities near these resources, such as the coal mines of Newcastle, which caused rapid population growth
Relief affects population density because it is harder to develop on mountainous terrain than in lowland areas like Birmingham, London, and Cardiff
Some coastal areas have a higher population density, especially where sheltered estuaries allow for the construction of key ports and harbours
Fishing ports of Grimsby, Whitby (England) and Portavogie in Northern Ireland
Liverpool, Bristol, and Southampton serve as important trade ports
London is the capital and the largest city in the UK, with 9.5 million people and a global financial centre
Birmingham has a population of 1.1 million, making it the second largest city

Populations within cities
People within city boundaries are distributed in a complex way, influenced by past events
All towns and cities tend to grow outwards, from a historic centre or core to an urban fringe
Each zone grew due to the needs of the city during its development over time
As a general rule, all towns and cities, regardless of place or level of development, show the same four features:
A central core: the oldest part of a city with features such as:
Low residential population
The central business district (CBD), e.g. banks, retail and commercial offices
Multi-storey development, with vertical growth rather than horizontal due to lack of space
An inner-city zone:
Older, compact, terraced 'worker' housing to support a growing population density
Surrounded by older industrial areas
A suburban zone: residential area:
Emergence of segregated residential zones based on wealth, ethnicity, choice or government policy (e.g. social housing)
Semi- and detached housing with gardens
Smaller retail premises
The urban fringe refers to the outer edges of the city.
Housing is clustered into estates, which increases 'spot' density
Countryside is eroded through the urban spread/sprawl
Some industrial land uses
Accessibility is best
Urban process timeline

Urban settlements first appear as a result of agglomeration:
People gather together in one area to sell goods and live
Small trading posts and villages begin to develop
As towns grow, they expand outward through a process known as suburbanisation
This adds to the built-up area, but the building densities are generally lower than in the older parts of the town
The new suburbs are made up of mostly houses but also include places of employment and services
Urban settlements continue to prosper and grow, while many people move out of the town or city entirely and commute to work.
These are called commuter settlements because many residents only sleep there and travel into work
They continue to have links with the town or city they have left
They still make use of urban services, shops, education, and healthcare
Impacts of national & international migration
What is migration?
Migration is the movement of people across an official boundary, either internationally or nationally, with the intention of creating a permanent place of residence
The UN defines the term 'permanent' as a change of residence for more than 1 year
Impact of national migration on the UK
Migration has shaped the UK and has impacted economically, culturally, politically and environmentally
The UK's economic development was the largest impact on the population density
Prior to the 18th century, the majority of UK residents lived in rural areas, relying on agriculture as their main form of employment
During the 19th century the industrial revolution saw a rapid rise in the number of people concentrated in cities as they migrated from the rural regions seeking employment in the better-paying secondary sector
Now in the UK's post-industrial phase, the population is spread around the cities, with urban sprawl a common feature
This internal migration has led to the population density of the modern UK, where the majority of people live in urban areas
Impact of international migration on the UK
The UK has always experienced waves of migrants
During the 1850s Irish famine
1950s from West Indies, seeking employment
From eastern Europe after EU enlargement and removal of barriers
Refugees from Syria and Ukraine, etc.
Out of the 59.6 million usual residents in England and Wales in 2021, 49.6 million (83.2%) were born in the UK and 10.0 million (16.8%) were born outside the UK. This means that about one in six people in England and Wales were born outside the UK - ONS 2021 census – International migration, England and Wales – OfficeWales - Office for National Statistics ( (opens in a new tab)ons.gov.uk (opens in a new tab)) (opens in a new tab)
India is still the most popular country of origin, with significant migration from Pakistan, Ireland and Poland
Effects of migration on urban growth
Positive
Skills gaps are filled
Culture is enriched
Birth rates are boosted
More low-wage workers
Support family in country of origin through remittances
Government tax revenue increases
Education opportunities as universities are found in UK cities
Youthful, single population and vibrant nightlife
Negative
Pressure on services, housing and infrastructure
Discrimination and racial tensions (immigrant seen as stealing jobs)
Overcrowding and congestion
Job competition
Language barriers and cultural assimilation
Gender imbalance – more men tend to migrate than women
Migrants tend to be located together in large city areas
Families and retiring couples move out looking for a quieter, safer and less polluted environment
Immigration causes conflict
Not all UK citizens believe that immigration and multiculturalism are good for the UK
This was one of the main points of the Brexit vote of 2016
It has created tensions and conflict between communities, along with hate crimes against ethnic minorities
Opportunities of urban change
There are many opportunities with urban change, which can be categorised through social, economic and environmental
Social
Cultural mix: Ethnic diversity due to the migration of people both with national and international migration
Recreation and entertainment: More opportunities for restaurants and leisure facilities
Economic
Cultural events, such as Notting Hill Carnival and Chinese New Year, etc., are becoming popular in cities which attract tourists to these events, boosting local revenues
New jobs in construction and tourism create a multiplier effect
CBDs are centres of finance but also attract shoppers to new shopping centres
Increase in hi-tech jobs and research; many universities have science parks on urban fringes
Environmental
Integrated transport systems such as 'park and ride' reduce pollution and congestion within urban areas
Greening of urban areas to help with urban heat and pollution but also open parks and places for recreation
The decline of industries in various cities has resulted in the creation of wasteland and brownfield sites. Urban developers regenerate these areas into cycle and pedestrian routes around the city to improve the environment
Challenges of urban change
The challenges faced by High-Income Countries (HICs) can be categorised into three main areas:
Social
Economic
Environmental
These challenges vary and are unique to each city, but they can generally be categorised as follows:
Social
The availability of
Social services and housing
Poverty and deprivation
Ethnic segregation
Quality of life
Ageing population
Tourism and crime
Economic
The impact of
Globalisation
Food supplies
Transport and traffic
Energy supply
Deindustrialisation
Service provision
Environmental
The level of
Pollution and waste disposal
The level of sustainability
The size of the ecological footprint
Energy, land, and water use
Are there major hazard risks
The use of green spaces
General examples
Deprivation
Deprivation is connected with poverty and occurs when a person’s well-being falls below an acceptable minimum standard
The minimum standard varies from country to country and applies to several different aspects of daily life
In the UK, there is a multiple deprivation index (MDI).
The UK MDI has 7 different indicators:
Income
Employment
Health
Education
Access to housing and services
Crime
Living environment
It is more than just not having enough money
Low quality of life
Poverty and deprivation are passed on from one generation to the next
Children will tend to get less parental support and usually have to attend inadequate schools
They also tend to leave school early with few qualifications
Lack of qualifications means they cannot find well-paid employment and rely on social handouts
Children they have will be born into this cycle and so families remain ‘trapped’ and unable to improve their circumstances
This feeds into a lower quality of life
Food, health, education and housing
Getting food for the million-plus inhabitants is difficult and food is often imported from other countries
Transportation costs add to the price the consumer has to pay
This also increases the carbon footprint of the city
With the development and regeneration programmes in cities, inequalities have increased between the wealthier and poor residents of the city
Poor-quality housing is one of the many causes of poor health due to coldness, overcrowding and mould
Unhealthy lifestyles, e.g., drinking, smoking and poor diets, are more common in inner-city areas and affect life expectancy
Many children in the inner-city area leave school without basic qualifications, leading to low incomes and high unemployment
Many inner-city schools are overcrowded and poorly maintained, resources are limited, and many teachers cannot afford to live in the city due to high rents or housing costs
Energy
All cities require energy for their residents and businesses
HICs have greater demands with modern-day electronics, heating, lighting and electric transport
As population grows, so does the demands of energy-hungry appliances; energy security is becoming an issue
Depending on the location, a variety of energy types are required. Wind power isn't possible for all cities or a continuously reliable source (not windy every day)
Regardless of how a city generates its energy, large amounts of resources will be used to add to a city's 'footprint'
Transport
Any large city will face problems with congestion on roads as the volume of people trying to get about the city
Cars and lorries will be polluting through exhaust emissions; buses and trains can be electric, reducing its impact
Despite technology helping more modern cars produce less pollution, the remaining city's transport infrastructure (rail, tube, buses, etc.) will also be under a lot of stress
Water
The supply of safe, clean water poses a major challenge for developed cities
A megacity will often have a higher demand for water than it can supply
This means that water needs to be brought in from other areas or other solutions need to be drawn up, such as a desalination plant
Waste
Every person and business produce waste, making the combined rubbish of a city, huge
Much of this waste will end up going to landfill, which is both expensive and wasteful
Space is running out and new laws restrict the dumping of certain wastes in landfill sites, adding to a city's problems in dealing with its waste
Segregation
There is a tendency for people to live near others of similar backgrounds and status
This can be through employment, wealth, ethnicity, etc.
This makes for little interaction between the groups, which isolates and limits social mobility
Isolation breeds fear and suspicion of 'differences' within the urban area
Dereliction
Industrial decline in the 20th century, along with dockland closures left mass unemployment in many of the inner-city areas
As factories shut down, large areas of derelict buildings were vandalised
These closures forced many people to move from the inner-city areas in search of jobs
This led to large numbers of terraced houses being boarded up
Development on rural-urban fringe
Also called the urban fringe, it is where green, open spaces meet the built-up areas of towns and cities
Growth at the urban fringe is due in part to counter-urbanisation, population growth, lack of space and spiralling land costs
These can be divided into push (negative factors causing people/businesses to leave central urban areas) and pull factors (positive factors pulling people/businesses to the rural-urban fringe):
Push and pull factors for the urban fringe
Push
Housing is old, congested and relatively expensive
There are various forms of environmental pollution – air quality is poor, and noise levels are high
Companies find that there is a shortage of land for expansion or building shops, offices and factories
Brownfield sites are expensive to build on due to the added costs of cleaning the land (especially if contaminated with asbestos) prior to building; plus, there may be restrictions on what can be built
Access for heavy goods vehicles is limited or difficult, adding to congestion and air pollution
Pull
Land is cheaper so houses are larger and have gardens
Factories can be more spacious and have plenty of room for workers to park their cars
Closeness to main roads and motorways allows for quicker and easier customer contacts
Closeness to main roads and motorways allows for quicker and easier commutes for car drivers and access for lorries
Changing working patterns thanks to technology, e.g. flexible working, working from home, etc.
Urban sprawl
The outer edges of a city is the rural-urban fringe or urban fringe
Growth at the urban fringe is due in part to counter-urbanisation, population growth, lack of space and spiralling land costs
Urban growth, if left unchecked, leads to urban sprawl
Availability of space for housing, retail and manufacturing: Including options for expansion
Many services are now located at the urban fringe: Major hospitals, superstores, specialist manufacturing, etc.
Issues include
Loss of farmland to build new homes
Impact on natural and built ecosystems
Removing trees increases pollution levels, etc.
Loss of rural way of life and character of the countryside
Loss of traditional 'green spaces'
School fields, parks, etc., are being built on
Creates impermeable surfaces and surface run-off
Higher risk of increased flooding
Higher emissions due to car dependency
People have to commute further
Increased traffic rates
Higher costs for public transport and social facilities
Local governments have to spread their budgets further
This further impacts healthcare, fire and policing facilities
Some urban areas have a planned and protected greenbelt
This means no development is allowed, but urban areas still need to grow
Development in major cities has jumped over the greenbelt and created commuter towns
This is where people work in the city and live within traveling or commuting distance of their place of work
This increases pollution, congestion, and lost time, which lowers productivity
Commuter towns
These areas mainly consist of homes, schools, and retail outlets
Commuter towns raise local house prices, making them unaffordable for local people
Villages in the South East of England, especially in Kent, Sussex, and Essex, sit on or near major train lines to London and other places
Families are moving out of London into newly built large homes in these villages, but the prices are too high for those already living in the area
This means two choices: either build on a greenfield or brownfield site
Brownfield vs greenfield developments
Brownfield
Brownfield site development reclaims land that was previously built on and puts it to another use, re-using space and saving land in the process
Advantages
Revives old and unused urban areas
It reduces the loss of countryside for farming or recreation
Water, electricity, and sewage services are already in place
These services sit close to major job centres
It lowers the chance of squatter settlements forming
Disadvantages
Old buildings often cost more to clear, and the land must be cleaned of pollution
It often has rundown areas, which does not attract wealthier people
More pollution
Greenfield
Greenfield sites are areas of land that have never been built on
Advantages
Healthier environment
Close to the countryside, leisure, and recreation
The layout is not restricted by the existing layout
Relatively cheap and rate of house building is faster
Access and infrastructure easier to build
Disadvantages
Valuable farmland is lost
Encourages further suburban sprawl
Wildlife and habitats are lost or disturbed
Recreational space and attractive scenery are lost
Limited access to public transport
Development creates noise and light pollution in the nearby countryside
Installing services like water, electricity, and sewage costs money
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