Two Key Studies of Enculturation & Acculturation: Basu et al. (2017) & Inman et al. (2007) (DP IB Psychology)

Adolescents aged 11-13 years and their parents

One sample was from a highly socially and economically disadvantaged area of Delhi, India (16 males, 15 females);

The other sample was from a low-income, disadvantaged area of Shanghai, China (17 males, 17 females)

The parents of the adolescents comprised a separate sample (24 from Delhi, 34 from Shanghai)

Delhi parents were younger (25-44 years) than the Shanghai parents (35-54 years)

40% of the Delhi parents had no formal education, whereas 75% of the Shanghai parents had at least some level of formal education

Narrative interviews (an open style of interviewing in which no pre-prepared questions are used) were conducted with the adolescents and their parents separately

The topic being discussed was ‘gender socialisation’ with discussions exploring ideas as to how each gender should dress, behave, prepare for adulthood, and so on

Girls, particularly in Delhi, should be covered up, and not wear jeans, just long skirts and should behave in a ‘ladylike’ way otherwise they would be punished. Boys could wear what they liked and were encouraged to be brave and tough

In Shanghai the parents put a lot of emphasis on ‘proper’ demeanour for girls such as sitting with an upright posture, being calm, gentle, and quiet: not behaving like this would bring dishonour on her family. Although boys were not faced with such strictures, they were expected to be polite and considerate towards girls

Delhi parents were more focused on girls preparing for life as a wife and mother whereas the Shanghai parents had expectations of career success for both boys and girls

There were huge restrictions in both countries regarding male-female interaction, with most families expressly forbidding it and threatening punishment even for the mildest of interactions, such as looking at a member of the opposite sex

Mothers emerged as the most influential and dominant figure in the gender socialisation process, with other significant adults (such as teachers and older siblings) also playing a role

Children from both countries reported that punishments such as beatings and shaming in front of friends were used without hesitation for perceived or actual rule violations, particularly those regarding male-female interactions

The use of narrative interviews means that this research collected a good amount of qualitative data which is rich, in-depth and insightful i.e. it has good explanatory power

Interviewing both the adolescents and their parents enabled the researchers to compare the extent of enculturation across generations

Narrative interviews can sometimes be derailed and veer off-topic if the participant wishes to talk at length on some unrelated matter

The sample is not representative e.g. more affluent areas of the two cities may well have reported less traditional attitudes towards gender socialisation

Acculturation

Gender socialisation

Narrative interviews

16 first-generation Indian Hindu parents (8 female; 8 male) who had moved to the USA in the late 1960s/early 1970s

The parents had all been over 20 years old when they had emigrated

Both purposive and snowball sampling methods were used to obtain the sample who were all fluent in English

Prior to the interview, participants were asked to classify themselves as either ‘very Indian/somewhat Indian/bicultural/somewhat American/very American’

They were asked to elaborate on this description of themselves in the interview

Semi-structured interviews were then conducted

Ethnic identity: The two most common self-categorisations (obtained with the question used prior to the interviews) were ‘very Indian’ whilst also feeling ‘bicultural’ i.e Berry’s idea that integration is the most successful acculturative strategy is supported in the data

Factors contributing to ethnic identity retention: Engagement in cultural celebrations and activities; maintaining traditional values and upbringing; family ties; and the need for social support all emerged as typical categories for both mothers and fathers

Their children’s bicultural experiences: Fathers typically and mothers generally noted the bicultural influence and the difficulties of maintaining cultural continuity, though being bicultural was generally seen by both groups of parents as being a strength

Challenges: The main challenges were seen as limited family and community guidance; obstacles presented by Western culture, such as inflexible work schedules and a lack of Indian cultural centres and schools; a lack of specific cultural knowledge; an inability to apply their own experience when raising their children; and there was a fear of intermarriage that might create a distance between parents and children and grandchildren

Narrative interviews allow the participants complete freedom when responding to questions which can lead to valuable ideas and information emerging which the researcher had not considered prior to the research

The results of the interviews were cross‐checked (with the question asked prior to the interview) and confirmed between researchers and by an external auditor which gives the research good internal validity 

It is possible that the parents could have discussed what they were going to say in the interviews prior to them being conducted which would impact the validity of their responses

A sample of 16 parents is very small and means that the results are not easily generalised

Acculturation

Ethnic identity

Narrative interviews