Formation of Personal Relationships: Biological Theories of Attraction (DP IB Psychology)

Biological Theories of Attraction

The evolutionary theory of attraction

• The evolutionary explanation of attraction/partner preference is based purely on opposite-sex attraction (as, until fairly recently, it was only possible to reproduce via traditional sexual intercourse)

• The traits which are deemed attractive by males and by females are quite distinct and have different functions according to evolutionary psychology

• Inter-sexual attraction refers to the differences between males and females and the ways in which these differences manifest themselves as attractive qualities in a mate

• Inter-sexual attraction can be seen vividly and obviously in animal mating patterns, for example:

  • the male peacock’s display of colourful feathers to attract a female

  • the zig-zag dance performed by male sticklebacks to attract the attention of fertile females

• Examples of male display and female fertility are not so marked in human beings but some parallels can be drawn as follows:

  • Human males who are wealthy give a ‘display’ of their wealth via expensive cars, houses, yachts, watches etc.

  • By displaying his wealth the human male is telling interested females that he has resources i.e. he can support her and any children she may bear him

  • Human females who are fertile tend to be young (menopause signals the end of fertility around the age of 40)

  • Female physical attributes which signal fertility include generous hips, ample bosom, an appearance of youthfulness

  • In short, males must have resources to offer security to the female; females must show that they are a good ‘investment’ in terms of their child-rearing potential

• Female choosiness is the concept that females must exercise much more caution and wariness when choosing a sexual partner than males need to

• One of the main explanations for female choosiness is that ‘sperm is cheap, eggs are expensive’ i.e. men can produce billions of spermatozoa per day whereas a woman will produce only one egg per month

• What the above points boil down to is:

  • females must take care not to have sex with ‘just anyone’ 

  • the result of casual sex could be pregnancy

  • the female may then be saddled with a partner who lacks sufficient resources

  • males can have a lot of sex and never get pregnant so the same conditions do not apply to them!

Evaluation of the evolutionary theory of attraction

Strengths

• There is some validity to this theory as seen in some research findings

• Support for the theory can also be seen in anecdotal evidence derived from real-world observations e.g. rich, older men with much younger women

Limitations

• The theory lacks external validity as it does not account for variations in mating preferences, for example:

  • women are actually able to support themselves and do not necessarily need to rely on a man for resources

  • some men do not focus solely on physical attractiveness and some men prefer older women

  • people are not slaves to their evolutionary urges: they are able to use sophisticated cognitions in their choice of partner

• Evolutionary theory is solely concerned with heterosexual mating preferences and reproduction which means that it has limited applicability to homosexual people and to the LGBTQ community as a whole

The neurochemical theory of attraction

• The neurochemical explanation of attraction may be found by investigating neurotransmitters (e.g. dopamine) and their effect on behaviour

• Dopamine production has been linked to the following regions:

  • the ventral tegmental area

  • the nucleus accumbens

  • the caudate nucleus

  • the basal ganglia

• Dopamine has been strongly associated with reward, motivation, intense pleasure and, by association, addiction

• Some research has found that dopamine-rich areas of the brain are activated when:

  • someone is experiencing a highly pleasurable activity/sensation/event

  • someone anticipates experiencing a highly pleasurable activity/sensation/event

  • cues which remind someone of a pleasurable stimulus are in place

• The neurochemical theory of attraction is that the brain becomes ‘addicted’ to the feelings associated with  romantic love i.e. even thinking about the person with whom one is ‘in love’ is enough to trigger dopamine activation

• This ‘addicted to love’ response is nothing to do with sex: it is a short-term infatuation which is thought to be the starting point for a couple to cement their commitment to each other

• Once the short-term infatuation is over (around 6 months) then the relationship settles down into a more balanced, stable form (which sounds dull but is essential for the long-term success of the relationship)

The brain structures and regions which are associated with dopamine production.

Evaluation of the neurochemical explanation of MDD

Strengths

• Research in this field uses scientific, objective methods e.g. fMRI scans, which increases its reliability

• Research in this field uses standardised procedures which are replicable and can be tested for reliability

Limitations

• Attempting to explain a complex phenomenon such as being ‘in love’ using brain scanning is overly reductionist as it ignores a raft of other possible explanations, for example:

  • Feeling a sense of connectedness to the other person (cognitive, not biological)

  • Sharing hobbies, activities, likes and dislikes with the other person (sociocultural, not biological)

• Although dopamine is the most researched neurotransmitter it is still, largely, a mystery in terms of its function and effect on people’s behaviour

Which studies investigate a biological explanation of MDD?

• Clarke & Hatfield (1989): evolutionary explanation: a field experiment investigating female choosiness

• Fisher et al. (2003): neurochemical explanation: fMRI scans of people ‘in love’ to determine a link to dopamine activation

Clarke & Hatfield (1989) and Fisher et al. (2005) are available as Two Key Studies of Biological Theories of Attraction – just navigate the Formation of Personal Relationships section to find them.