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What is social identity theory?
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What is social identity theory?
Social identity theory (SIT) refers to the identity an individual forms of themselves based on their group memberships.
What is an ingroup?
An ingroup is any group(s) to which an individual belongs.
What is an outgroup?
An outgroup is any group to which an individual does not belong.
What is the process by which people arrange others into groups according to specific group characteristics?
Social categorisation is the process by which people arrange others into groups according to specific group characteristics.
True or False?
Social comparison the process by which an individual or group compares themselves either favourably (downward comparison) or unfavourably (upward comparison) to other groups.
True.
Social comparison is the process by which an individual or group compares themselves favourably (downward comparison) or unfavourably (upward comparison) to other groups.
What is meant by homogeneity of the outgroup?
Homogeneity of the outgroup is the process by which the outgroup appears as a 'mass' of identical, indistinct members with no individuality.
Is positive distinctiveness of the ingroup:
a) the belief that the ingroup are better than the outgroup?
b) the belief that the ingroup is made up of distinct, varied individuals?
c) the belief that the ingroup have a positive outlook on life?
b) Positive distinctiveness of the ingroup is the belief that the ingroup is made up of distinct, varied individuals.
True or False?
Social identity theory can explain stereotype formation.
False.
Although social identity theory may be a basis whereby stereotypes are formed, it is advisable not to use it to answer questions on the formation or effect of stereotypes.
What is Tajfel's minimal groups paradigm?
Tajfel's minimal groups paradigm is the idea that groups will form under the most meaningless (i.e., minimal conditions) such as mere random allocation to group.
State the meaning of ingroup favouritism.
Ingroup favouritism is the process by which the ingroup is favoured and the outgroup is dismissed or demonised.
What was the aim of Tajfel (1972)?
To investigate the minimal groups paradigm and how it is relevant to social identity theory (SIT).
What was the procedure of Tajfel (1972)?
The boys were randomly assigned to groups and asked to assign money (virtual, not real) to members of either their ingroup or outgroup.
What were the results of Tajfel's (1972) study?
The boys tended to favour the ingroup members, choosing to go for a higher reward and to penalise the outgroup, thus maximising the profit/loss difference between the ingroup and the outgroup.
What was the conclusion of Tajfel (1972)?
Ingroup favouritism can be manipulated via the minimal groups paradigm, suggesting that simply knowing that another (rival) group exists is enough to suggest the idea of 'us' and 'them'.
What was the aim of Howarth's (2002) study?
To investigate the ways in which prejudice and discrimination affect social identity.
What are focus group interviews?
Focus group interviews are group discussions where participants discuss a topic with the researcher recording the session.
What was the procedure of Howarth (2002)?
The researcher conducted focus group interviews with teenagers from Brixton and interviews with head teachers to gain insights into the cultural backgrounds of the students.
What were the results of Howarth's (2002) study?
The researcher collected qualitative data under three main headings:
Constructing social identities through representations
The psychological violence of stigmatising representations
Social relationships and institutional cultures in empowerment.
What was the conclusion of Howarth (2002)?
Social identity can be hugely affected by the prejudiced attitudes of individuals and of society as a whole.
True or False?
Howarth (2002) used a matched pairs design.
False.
Howarth's (2002) study used focus group interviews and interviews with head teachers.
What does SCT stand for?
SCT stands for social cognitive theory.
What is social cognitive theory (SCT)?
Social cognitive theory (SCT) was developed by Bandura (1986) as a broader explanation of social learning theory (SLT), which is based on observational learning.
Define observational learning.
Observational learning is learning that takes place in a social context, where individuals learn by observing others.
What does ARRM stand for in observational learning?
ARRM stands for Attention-Retention-Reproduction-Motivation, which are the constituent parts of observational learning.
Which feature of social cognitive theory involves the belief that an individual has autonomy over their actions and that a person's destiny is not wholly dependent on their environment?
Self-efficacy is the belief that an individual has autonomy over their actions and that a person's destiny is not wholly dependent on their environment.
What is reciprocal determinism?
Reciprocal determinism is the concept that interactions between the individual, their social environment, and the behaviour itself work together holistically to determine behavioural outcomes.
Which of the following is an example of vicarious reinforcement?
a) A child is rewarded for tidying the classroom
b) A child observes another child being rewarded for tidying the classroom
c) A child is told not to make a mess of the classroom
b.
An example of vicarious reinforcement is a child who observes another child being rewarded for tidying the classroom, and copying the same behaviour.
True or False?
Social cognitive theory and social identity theory are interchangeable.
False.
Social cognitive theory and social identity theory are completely separate theories and are not interchangeable.
True or False?
Self-efficacy will work more successfully if the environmental conditions are in place to aid it.
True.
Self-efficacy will work more successfully if the environmental conditions are in place to aid it. Favourable environmental conditions allow for more successful self-efficacy.
State the definition of a role model.
Role models are the key individuals, particularly parents and other significant people, whose behaviours are observed and learned by individuals, especially children.
What was the aim of Bandura (1961)?
To investigate observational learning in children when confronted with an aggressive adult role model.
What was the procedure of Bandura (1961)?
Children observed either an aggressive or a non-aggressive adult model or no adult at all. They were then allowed to play with toys, including a Bobo doll, and their aggressive behaviour was measured.
What were the results of Bandura's (1961) study?
Children in the aggressive condition produced more directly imitative acts of aggression towards the Bobo doll, and there was more same-sex imitation of aggressive behaviour. Boys showed more physical aggression than girls.
What was the conclusion of Bandura (1961)?
Aggression can be the result of observational learning experienced in one setting and carried over to a different setting.
What was the aim of Dijkstra and DeVries' (2001) study?
To investigate self-efficacy (a key component of social cognitive theory) as a factor in quitting smoking.
What was the procedure of Dijkstra and DeVries (2001)?
Participants were randomly allocated to receive information on the negative outcomes of smoking (condition 1); self-efficacy-enhancing information (condition 2), or to both 1 and 2 (the control condition).
What were the results of Dijkstra and DeVries (2001)?
The self-efficacy-enhancing information condition had the highest number of participants who had been 'clean' for 7 days and who had attempted to quit in the last 12 weeks.
What was the conclusion of Dijkstra and DeVries (2001)?
Self-efficacy may be a key factor in helping people to quit smoking; simply warning people of the dangers of smoking does not appear to be as effective.
Djikstra & DeVries (2001) conducted a field experiment.What is one limitation of a field experiment?
a) the researchers have too much control
b) the participants may do not do what the researchers want them to do
c) the researchers are unable to control all extraneous variables
c) The researchers are unable to control all extraneous variables in a field experiment.
Define a stereotype.
A stereotype comprises a set of characteristics attributed to social and cultural groups based on broad, often biased information about that group.
Which cognitive bias assumes a relationship between two variables that does not exist or is based on stereotypical assumptions lacking evidence?
Illusory Correlation is a cognitive bias which assumes a relationship between two variables that does not exist or is based on stereotypical assumptions lacking evidence.
Which of the following is an illusory correlation?
a) Hair colour and IQ
b) Energy expended and calories burned
c) Hours of Netflix watched and shoe size
a) hair colour and IQ is the illusory correlation
True or False?
Stereotyping can lead to prejudice.
True.
Stereotyping can lead to associations between groups and often negative characteristics, leading to prejudice and discrimination.
True or False?
Every type of illusory correlation is harmful.
False.
Only illusory correlations which potentially lead to prejudice and discrimination are harmful.
What is the relevance of the cognitive miser explanation re: stereotyping?
The cognitive miser explanation suggests that in a complex world individuals use shortcuts like illusory correlation to understand it, saving cognitive energy.
State the relationship between illusory correlation and stereotype formation.
Illusory correlation directly influences stereotype formation by ascribing negative characteristics to specific groups based on fixed and untested ideas about them.
How does stereotype formation differ from the effects of stereotyping?
Stereotype formation concerns the theories (e.g. illusory correlation) that explain how stereotypes develop; the effects of stereotyping concerns how the individual is affected by pre-existing stereotypes about them.
Define a stereotype threat.
Stereotype threat occurs when an individual’s performance on a task is impaired due to the fear that preexisting stereotypes influence the way that other people judge them.
What is one possible effect of stereotype threat?
One possible effect of stereotype threat is that an individual may believe that their performance on a task will confirm negative stereotypes i.e. it acts as a self-fulfilling prophecy.
True or False?
Stereotype threat is when individuals actively stereotype others.
False.
Stereotype threat is when someone's performance is affected by the fear of being judged based on existing stereotypes, even if others are not actively stereotyping them at the time.
Which of the following is an example of stereotype threat?
a) An American tourist consumes a hamburger
b) A teacher is nervous before a lesson with a difficult class
c) A woman parks her car badly when she has 3 male passengers
An example of stereotype threat is:
c) A woman parks her car badly when she has 3 male passengers - this is a stereotype threat as the woman is aware of the stereotype that 'women can't park' and this affects her performance.
Which cognitive bias was investigated by Hamilton & Gifford (1976)?
Illusory correlation, which is the perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists.
True or False?
Illusory correlation may be based on group size.
True.
Hamilton & Gifford (1976) found that participants attributed more positive characteristics to the larger group.
Hamilton & Gifford (1976)generated quantitative data: which of the following is a strength of quantitative data?
a) It is rich and insightful
b) It provides explanations for behaviour
c) It is easy to compare and analyse.
A strength of quantitative data is:
c) Quantitative data is easy to compare and analyse.
True or False?
Hamilton & Gifford (1976) is a good example of high ecological validity.
False.
The participants were asked to perform an artificial task in controlled, lab conditions
Which theory of the effects of stereotyping involves anxiety in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group.
Stereotype threat involves anxiety in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group.
Spencer et al. (1999) investigated stereotype threat in relation to:
a) impaired maths performance in women
b) impaired verbal skill in African American students
c) imparied social media use in pensioners
Spencer et al. (1999) investigated stereotype threat in relation to:
a) impaired maths performance in women
True or False?
Women significantly underperformed in a maths test in the relevance condition of Spencer et al. (1999).
True.
Spencer et al. (1999) concluded that this was a result of stereotype threat.
One limitation of Spencer et al. (1999) is:
a) the researchers did not use a standardised procedure
b) performance on the maths test could have been due to the participants succumbing to demand characteristics
c) they did not test older participants
One limitation of Spencer et al. (1999) is:
b) performance on the maths test could have been due to the participants succumbing to demand characteristics.
Both studies on stereotyping lack ecological validity.
Define ecological validity.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalised to real-life settings/behaviours.