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What is meant by reconstructive memory?
Reconstructive memory is memory that is retrieved as fragments, sometimes omitting key pieces of information or inserting new information, influenced by external factors like discussing the event with others or media reports.
Schemas may lead to reconstructed memory as they:
a) ignore long-term memory and only focus on short-term memory
b) influence understanding and expectation of events, contributing to biased recall
c) are overly influenced by emotion
b.
Schemas may lead to reconstructed memory as they influence understanding and expectation of events, contributing to biased recall.
This can be seen in Bartlett (1932) - the effect of culture schemas on recall of a story.
Define confabulation.
Confabulation is a form of reconstructive memory where recall of an event is distorted, involving fabrication of details, misinterpretation, or insertion of information not present at the time of the event.
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What is meant by reconstructive memory?
Reconstructive memory is memory that is retrieved as fragments, sometimes omitting key pieces of information or inserting new information, influenced by external factors like discussing the event with others or media reports.
Schemas may lead to reconstructed memory as they:
a) ignore long-term memory and only focus on short-term memory
b) influence understanding and expectation of events, contributing to biased recall
c) are overly influenced by emotion
b.
Schemas may lead to reconstructed memory as they influence understanding and expectation of events, contributing to biased recall.
This can be seen in Bartlett (1932) - the effect of culture schemas on recall of a story.
Define confabulation.
Confabulation is a form of reconstructive memory where recall of an event is distorted, involving fabrication of details, misinterpretation, or insertion of information not present at the time of the event.
How can cultural schemas affect memory?
Cultural schemas may lead to incorrect recall of events if those events or information do not align with someone's cultural norms.
Which of the following demonstrates schematic interference?
a) Someone witnesses a fight in a pub and correctly recalls that there was broken glass at the scene
b) Someone witnesses a fight in a pub and assumes that there was broken glass at the scene
c) Someone witnesses a fight in a pub but they cannot remember anything about the incident at all
b.
Schematic interference can be demonstrated by someone witnessing a fight in a pub and assuming that there was broken glass at the scene.
In this case the person has probably unconsciously 'seen' broken glass even if none were there as this fits the schema of 'fight in pub'.
True or False?
Memory records events with 100% accuracy.
False.
Memory does not record events with 100% accuracy; it retrieves fragments of the event, which may be distorted, fabricated, or influenced by external factors.
What is eyewitness testimony?
a) Seeing a crime being committed
b) Reporting a crime to the police
c) The account given by an someone who has witnessed a crime
c.
Eyewitness testimony is the account given by an someone who has witnessed a crime. This happens after the crime has been observed (the individual themselves may not have reported it) - to the police and/or a court of law.
How can reconstructive memory affect eyewitness testimony?
Reconstructive memory may lead to distortions or fabrications in eyewitness recall of events.
Which of the following is a leading question?
a) Did you see a broken window?
b) Did you see the broken window?
c) Did you see anyone hanging around near the windows?
b.
Did you see the broken window is a leading question.
This suggests that the window was definitely broken i.e. 'leading the witness'.
True or False?
There are potentially serious consequences of using leading questions with eyewitnesses.
True.
There are potentially serious consequences of using leading questions with eyewitnesses e.g. inaccurate or biased testimony, which could affect legal outcomes, potentially resulting in wrongful convictions or the evasion of justice.
What is the aim of Bartlett's (1932) study?
The aim of Bartlett's (1932) study is to investigate the effect of cultural schemas on reconstructive memory.
True or False?
Bartlett (1932) uses serial reproduction as part of the study's procedure.
True.
Bartlett (1932) uses serial reproduction as part of the study's procedure. This was put in place to observe the effects of memory reconstructing a culturally unfamiliar story.
Key details of the Native American folk story were ignored or missed out by Bartlett's (1932) participants, particularly unfamiliar or unpleasant details. This is an example of:
a) sharpening
b) confabulation
c) omission
c.
Key details of the Native American folk story were ignored or missed out by Bartlett's participants, particularly unfamiliar or unpleasant details: this is an example of omission.
What does Bartlett (1932) conclude about reconstructive memory in relation to cultural schemas?
Bartlett (1932) concludes that cultural schemas contribute to the reconstructive nature of memory by interfering with recall when culturally unfamiliar details are present.
How might individual differences in the Bartlett (1932) study affect the validity of the findings?
Individual differences in the Bartlett (1932) study e.g. poor overall memory, lack of attention, personal learning styles, mood on the day, may affect the validity of the findings.
What is the aim of Loftus & Palmer's (1974) study?
a) To investigate the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony
b) To investigate the effect of schema on leading questions
c) To investigate the effect of emotion on memory
a.
The aim of Loftus & Palmer's (1974) study is to investigate the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony.
The leading question was the use of the verb in each of the five conditions of the independent variable.
True or False?
Loftus & Palmer (1974) use a repeated measures design in their study.
False.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) use an independent groups design. This reduces demand characteristics which a repeated measures design would produce.
Which of the following verbs is not used in one of the leading questions in Loftus & Palmer's (1974) study?
a) Bumped
b) Collided
c) Crashed
c.
Crashed is not used in one of the leading questions in Loftus & Palmer's (1974) study.
The 'strongest' of the verbs used was 'smashed'.
True or False?
Loftus & Palmer's (1974) study lacks ecological validity because watching recorded footage is not the same as experiencing the event.
True.
Loftus & Palmer's (1974) study lacks ecological validity because watching recorded footage is not the same as experiencing the event.
Define the term cognitive bias.
A cognitive bias is a faulty or distorted way of perceiving or understanding the world.
True or False?
Cognitive biases may distort thinking and lead to unreliable processing of information.
True.
Cognitive biases may distort thinking and lead to unreliable processing of information. They are a type of heuristic i.e. they are short-cuts in thinking which can lead to stereotyping, prejudice and faulty information processing.
Which of the following is an example of an illusory correlation:
a) Japanese people eat a lot of rice
b) Oxford university demands high entrance grades
c) Blondes have more fun
c.
An example of an illusory correlation is that blondes have more fun.
There is no established, evidential relationship between having blonde hair and having more fun than other hair colours.
Which explanation is this:
Using cognitive biases such as illusory correlations requires less cognitive energy than fully focusing on subtle and varied explanations for specific behaviours.
The cognitive miser explanation suggests that using cognitive biases such as illusory correlations requires less cognitive energy than fully focusing on subtle and varied explanations for specific behaviours or types of people.
Which type of thinking as proposed by the Dual Process Model is illusory correlation an example of?
Illusory correlation is an example of System 1 thinking as it is a fast, short-cut, effortless way of thinking and making decisions.
Define the just world hypothesis.
The just world hypothesis is a cognitive bias which proposes that the world is a fair (and just) place in which good people are rewarded and bad people are punished.
True or False?
The just world hypothesis suggests that bad things only happen to bad people.
True.
The just world hypothesis suggests that bad things only happen to bad people. The idea that bad people suffer misfortune or punishment is a cognitive bias as it is not based on real-world experience or events.
The just world hypothesis considers the extent to which people feel a sense of vulnerability about their safety in the world.
Define the term vulnerability.
Vulnerability refers to the state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally.
What is the function of the just world hypothesis in victim-blaming?
a) That unworthy victims deserve what has happened to them
b) That victims should not be blamed for what has happened to them
c) That all victims are somehow to blame for what has happened to them
a.
The function of the just world hypothesis in victim-blaming is that unworthy victims deserve what has happened to them.
An 'unworthy' victim could be someone who is homeless, drunk, in prison etc.
How does the just world hypothesis function as a means to manage anxiety?
a) By finding evidence that only bad people come to harm
b) By falsely believing that behaving morally will protect you from harm
c) By not believing news stories of good people being harmed
b.
The just world hypothesis may function as a means to manage anxiety by falsely believing that behaving morally will protect you from harm.
If the world is a 'just' and fair place then being 'good' will protect you from harm.
Which cognitive bias is investigated by Hamilton & Gifford (1976)?
Hamilton & Gifford (1976) investigate illusory correlation: a perception that there is a relationship between two variables when there is none.
What is a minority group?
A minority group is a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from others in the society.
True or False?
Participants in the Hamilton & Gifford (1976) study are presented with groups consisting of real-life people.
False.
Participants in the Hamilton & Gifford (1976) study are presented with hypothetical groups, not real groups.
What are the conditions of Hamilton & Gifford's (1976) independent variable?
a) Group A: 13 members; Group B: 26 members
b) Group A: females; Group B; males
c) Group A; 26 members; Group B; 3 members
c.
The conditions of Hamilton & Gifford's (1976) independent variable are:
Group A; 26 members; Group B; 3 members
True or False?
Hamilton & Gifford's (1976) results showed that participants attributed more desirable social behaviours (6.7) to members of group A than to members of group B (6.0).
True.
Hamilton & Gifford's (1976) results showed that participants attributed more desirable social behaviours (6.7) to members of group A than to members of group B (6.0). This result supports the hypothesis that minority groups will be viewed less favourably.
Hamilton & Gifford's (1976) study does not fully reflect how people respond in real-life situations where they are exposed to minority groups. This reduces the study's:
a) reliability
b) ecological validity
c) temporal validity
b.
Hamilton & Gifford (1976) does not fully reflect how people respond in real-life situations where they are exposed to minority groups. This reduces the study's ecological validity.
What is the aim of the Piliavin et al. (1969) study?
The aim of the Piliavin et al. (1969) study is to investigate the degree of help given to a victim who appeared to be either drunk or disabled.
Piliavin et al. (1969) uses an opportunity sample.
What is an opportunity sample?
An opportunity sample is a type of non-probability sampling method where the researcher selects whoever is conveniently available at the time of data collection.
True or False?
Piliavin et al. (1969) uses a standardised procedure which was staged in a real-life setting.
True.
Piliavin et al. (1969) uses a standardised procedure which was staged in a real-life setting. It involves a fake collapse using naïve participants on a stretch of the New York subway.
What is the role of the two female confederates in the Piliavin et al. (1969) study?
The role of the two female confederates in the Piliavin et al. (1969) study is to sit in the adjacent area and observe the responses of the passengers.
In Piliavin et al.'s (1969) study, the critical area late condition involved the model:
a) standing in the critical area and waiting 150 seconds after the collapse to help
b) standing in the critical area and waiting 70 seconds after the collapse to help
c) left it too late to help at all
a.
In Piliavin et al.'s (1969) study, the critical area late condition involves the model standing in the critical area and waiting approximately 150 seconds after the collapse to help.
Identify two ethical issues with the Piliavin et al. (1969) study.
Two ethical issues with the Piliavin et al. (1969) study are a lack of informed consent and deception of participants.
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