Geopolitical Constraints (DP IB Geography)

• Eritrea is a northeast African country in the Horn of Africa

• Eritrea is a militarised authoritarian state with a HFI of 3/100

• There have been no national elections since 1993, after gaining independence from Ethiopia

• The only political party is the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), headed by President Isaias Afwerki

• Random arrests are common

• National service is compulsory for men and women and is often open-ended

  • Students completing secondary school are obliged to complete the year in military service

  • Anyone trying to avoid military service or escape the country have been fired on by soldiers

• All independent media was shut down by the government in 2001

• There are strict rules on religion, with Eritrea recognising only 4 faiths

  • The two major religions in Eritrea are Sunni Islam and Eritrean Orthodox Christianity

  • Evangelical Lutheranism

  • Catholicism

  • Followers of other faiths can be arrested, imprisoned and have their property confiscated

• Education is heavily regulated

  • Course content is censored

  • Research is limited

  • Universities are closed in favour of small colleges and technical schools

• Freedom of speech, expression and private discussion are limited for fear of being informed to the government

• Authorities regularly block access to social media and internet

  • Only 6% of the population own a mobile phone

  • Just 1% of the population have access to the internet via internet cafes

• Public gatherings of more than seven people require a permit or face imprisonment or forced removal

• Same-sex relationships are a criminal offence and LGBT+ people have no legal protection from discrimination

• Many Eritreans have fled the country to get away from state control, although they are still subject to government surveillance and harassment

China's Great Firewall

• China’s is an authoritarian regime with an HFI of 9/100

• The ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) keeps tight control over all aspects of life and governance and includes:

  • State bureaucracy

  • The media

  • Internet and social media

  • Religious practice

  • Universities

  • Businesses

• The extent of CCP's general secretary Xi Jinping's personal power has not been seen in China for decades

• There are no direct or competitive elections for national leaders

• The CCP is the only political party

  • Citizens who have tried to establish independent political parties are nearly all in prison, under house arrest or in exile

  • The CCP is not accountable to voters and denies the public any meaningful participation in political affairs

• The political system is dominated by ethnic Han Chinese men

  • Women, ethnic and religious minorities and LGBTQ+ people have no real political representation

• China has one of the world’s most sophisticated system of censorship, particularly online

• State management of communications infrastructure allows them to block websites, restrict and remove domestic apps from smartphones, delete social media posts and ban user accounts

• Thousands of websites have been blocked, including:

  • Major news outlets such as the New York Times, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC),

  • Social media hubs: YouTube, X, and Facebook

• Journalists and bloggers have been detained, disappeared or criminally charged

  • Fang Bin, who shared information about the COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan was detained

  • Long prison terms for critical or satirical social media posts against Xi or the CCP

• As well as criminal punishment, internet users face account deletions, job dismissals, random detention, and police interrogation over such posts

• Facial-recognition software surveillance cameras are installed in public areas and transport

• Companies have to store Chinese users’ data under China’s Cybersecurity Law

  • Communication companies have to get facial scans of new internet or mobile phone users as part of the real-name registration process

• Offline monitoring is done through neighbourhood party committees and 'public security volunteers, who are visible during large events

• The Counterespionage Law 2023 restricts the spread of information related to national security

• However, the details of what are and are not part of national security are not clearly defined

  • It also allows authorities to inspect electronic equipment and data

  • Citizens are encouraged to engage in counterespionage activities against their fellow citizens

  • Individuals are restricted from leaving and entering China

• Academic freedom is heavily restricted

  • Classroom discussions are monitored at every stage of education and includes:

    • Surveillance cameras in some classrooms

    • Large-scale recruitment of student informants

    • Special departments to supervise the political thinking of teaching staff

• Bolivia has the second-largest gas reserves in Latin America but produces only a small amount of oil for domestic use

• Concerned over US economic power in the region and the exploitative actions of TNCs in general

• Foreign energy companies were told they had 6 months to sign new operating contracts or leave the country

• All signed, and this resulted in higher revenues for the government

• All foreign energy companies have to deliver all their production to the state-run Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB) for distribution and processing

• Overall, Bolivia has taken control of 82% of the oil and gas in the country, leaving the remainder to foreign companies

• Bolivia is adopting a socialist model of regional commerce and cooperation as opposed to what it sees as ‘US-backed free trade’

• The government is trying to attract foreign direct investment while also giving the state a larger role in managing the economy

• Bolivia has been successful, despite the IMF and World Bank warnings, and there is now impressive poverty alleviation and faster economic growth because of the control of Bolivia’s natural resources within the country

Just because a country has nationalised its resources, it doesn't mean it has complete control. As in the case of Bolivia, there is some reliance on TNCs to provide expertise and equipment to develop these resources. There is, therefore, a dependency on each other.