Relief & Climate Characteristics (DP IB Geography)

Revision Note

Relief & Climate Characteristics of Cold & High-Altitude Environments

  • Around the world, cold environments vary

    • For instance, polar regions are considered to be dry (arid) but some areas can be hyper-arid  

    • At the upper latitudes, the sun does not rise or sink for several months of the year

Polar 

  • Climate

    • Harsh, covered in snow and ice

    • Long winters and short summers 

    • Snow storms and cold winds for most of the year

    • The Arctic's mean temperature range is -28 °C to 4 °C

    • Average annual precipitation of approx. 100mm

    • The Antarctic's mean temperature is -55 °C in some places

    • Coastal areas are milder, with an annual average of -10 °C

    • The annual average precipitation is 200 mm

  • Relief

    • The Arctic is a frozen ocean mostly surrounded by land

      • It has pack and drift ice

      • Rugged shores

      • Flat coastal plains

      • Rolling hills

      • Mountains surpassing 6 000 m above sea level

      • The Arctic has moderate relief

    • The Antarctic is an area of land surrounded by oceans

      • Covered in a thick ice sheet 

      • The Transantarctic mountain range divides the continent east and west, with peaks above 4 000 m

      • West Antarctica has the highest mountain (Mt Vinson) at 4892m above sea level

      • Antarctica has the highest average surface elevation of all the continents, at around 2000m above sea level

      • The highest elevation is over 4 000 m

      • Therefore, Antarctica has a rugged relief

High-mountain (non-tropical)

  • Climate

    • Cool climates with some snow coverage but not all year

    • Seasonal temperatures range from −10 °C in winter to 20 °C in the summer months

    • Precipitation in high mountains depends on aspect

      • Windward sides receive large amounts of precipitation, with snow in the winter months

      • Leeward sides are in the rain shadow and, therefore, drier and protected from strong winds

      • On average, temperatures decrease with elevation at roughly 10 °C per 1000 m, so high mountains will be much colder than lower-altitude environments

  • Relief

    • Some mountain environments may have a wide diurnal range

    • Some mountain areas are dry because they are in the rain shadow, while others are wet with high rates of rainfall

    • Mountains may appear as a single feature or in a range

    • They can be formed through folding, such as the Andes, or through volcanic eruptions (Mount Elbrus, Caucasus)

    • They usually have steep slopes, with scree at their bases, alternating between valleys, hills and peaks

    • They can be classified as rugged relief

Glacial

  • Climate

    • Characterised by permanently low temperatures, but may rise above 0 °C with seasonal temperature variations 

    • Cold climates in high latitudes and altitudes

    • Ice remains throughout the year

    • High precipitation but limited liquid precipitation provide inputs into the glacial system

    • Little seasonal temperature variation 

  • Relief

    • Can be covered in u-shaped valleys along with steep, eroded mountain peaks

    • Or deep valleys with sediment deposits

    • Soil exposure is less due to snow cover

    • If sea invades the deep valley, it becomes a fjord

    • Can be classified as rugged relief

Periglacial

  • Climate

    • Cool climates with some snow coverage but not all year

    • Seasonal temperatures range from −10 °C in winter to 20 °C in the summer months

    • Mean average temperature between -1 °C and -3 °C

    • Precipitation in alpine mountains depend on aspect

      • Windward sides receive large amounts of precipitation, with snow in winter months

      • Leeward sides are in the rain shadow and, therefore, drier and protected from strong winds

      • Mean annual precipitation less than 1 000 mm

  • Relief

    • Found mainly in the northern hemisphere

    • Lack permanent ice cover, but experience freezing temperatures most of the year

    • Have a layer of permafrost beneath the active soil layer

    • Can be classified as moderate relief with significant elevation changes and a mix of landforms

Relief & Climate Characteristics of Hot Arid Environments

Climate

  • Hot, arid environments share a number of climatic characteristics

  • Located in zones of high atmospheric pressure due to sinking, warm, dry air

  • Insolation is strong because of a lack of cloud cover and the angle of the sun

  • Temperatures are high with large diurnal ranges (up to a 30 °C difference) 

    • The diurnal range is less extreme (up to15°C) in semi-arid regions

    • The mean annual temperature of most arid margins is lower by approximately 10 and 20 °C

    • Distance from the coasts: land heats and cools faster inland, providing a greater range of temperature

    • Height above sea level (elevation): the higher the region, the cooler it will be

    • Albedo effects temperatures: salt-encrusted, dried-out lakes reflect insolation, making the area cooler

  • Strong desert winds and sandstorms are common

    • Changes in temperatures create steep pressure gradients that generate strong winds

    • Harmattan winds from the Sahara create powerful dust (loess) storms that blow over West Africa between Nov and April 

    • Convection winds are typical late afternoon and evening

  • Precipitation is usually small, infrequent but intense, resulting in flash flooding

    • The overhead sun (low latitude) provides intense convective activity that triggers thunderstorms

    • Arid regions receive 25–250 mm of precipitation per year

    • Semi-arid areas have seasonal rainfall between 250 and 500 mm per year

    • Areas closer to cool ocean currents have lower temperatures and produce sea fog

Relief

  • Deserts are considered active, mobile landscapes

  • Vegetation is sparse, such as grassland, with few trees 

    • However, irrigation schemes show that many hot deserts have potentially fertile soils

    • Allowing some areas to be permanently or seasonally inhabited by people

  • Surfaces are hard (baked by the Sun) or have exposed rock

    • Making infiltration rates poor and increasing surface runoff

  • Relief can be divided into 3 types:

    • Hamada: most of the sand has been removed, leaving behind a landscape of gravel, boulders and bare rock plateaus

    • Reg: hard, impermeable surfaces composed of rock fragments set in sand or clay

    • Erg: sandy deserts/sand seas, common only in about 30% of deserts.  Their distribution appears to be climate-linked (i.e. less than 150 mm of rain)

desert-landscape

Hamada desert

Reg desert 

Erg desert

  • Desert landscapes are diverse due to:

    • Geological factors (tectonics and rock type)

    • Climate: temperature, rainfall and wind

    • Weathering and mass movement processes

    • Time 

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