Availability & Consumption of Resources (DP IB Geography)

Availability & Consumption of Water

Earth's water 

• Freshwater makes up just 2.5% of all Earth's water

• Approximately 1.6% of the freshwater is locked away:

  • The cryosphere holds 68.6% of freshwater as ice

  • The remaining 30.1% is groundwater 

• In total, just 0.9% of the Earth's total freshwater is accessible to humans 

Availability of freshwater

• Water is unevenly distributed around the globe because of physical and human factors

Physical and Human Factors Affecting Global Water Distribution

• This means that people's access to water is uneven and dependent on where they live

Global availability of freshwater

• Global climate differences create varying amounts of groundwater, surface water, and precipitation levels

• Availability may also be affected by population levels and wealth

• The distribution of the human population does not match the distribution of water

  • This creates areas that do not have adequate local water supplies

Patterns and trends

• Since 2000, 1.8 billion people have gained access to basic drinking water services

• Inequalities in access remain

• According to the World Bank, inequality in access to water is the greatest threat to:

  • Economic progress

  • The eradication of poverty

  • Sustainable development

• It is the poorest and most vulnerable that suffer the most

Increasing demand for water

• Demand for safe water is increasing due to:

  • Economic development

  • Population growth

  • Increased use of renewable energy

• At present, HICs have some of the highest levels of consumption due to:

  • Modern appliances

  • Swimming pools

  • Internal bathrooms

  • Production of food and manufactured goods

• MICs are increasing their consumption and demand for water; much of this increase is due to industrialisation 

• LICs have the smallest water footprint

Agriculture

• Agricultural production of food, fibres, livestock and industrial crops accounts for 70% of global groundwater withdrawals

  • This figure is even higher in arid and semi-arid regions

• By 2050, there will be an estimated 50% increase in demand for food, adding extra stress on groundwater abstraction

• Much of this growth will be in LICs, which already experience water stress

Industry

• Approximately 17% of total water withdrawals are used for industrial purposes

• Freshwater use in industry includes:

  • Dilution

  • Steam generation

  • Washing and cooling of manufacturing equipment and goods

• Industrial water is also used as a cooling agent for energy generation in fossil fuel and nuclear power plants (hydropower generation is not included in this category), or as wastewater from certain industrial processes

• At over 300 billion m³, the U.S. is the largest consumer of industrial water

• China is the second largest consumer at 140 billion m³

• Other regions use approximately one billion m³ of industrial water per year, with Sub-Saharan Africa and some parts of South Asia using less than 500 million m³ of industrial water per year

Domestic 

• The remaining 13% is used for domestic, household or public services (cooking, cleaning, washing and drinking)

  • The three countries with the highest domestic use of water are China, USA and India

• Future demands for freshwater include:

  • Population growth

  • Growth of middle class - affluence leads to increased water consumption

  • Growth in tourism and leisure

  • Growth in urbanisation requires investment in water and sanitation infrastructure

  • Climate change and increased climatic variability of precipitation rates

Embedded, hidden or virtual water

• This refers to water transported from one place to another through the export of foods, flowers, manufactured products, drinks, etc. 

• It allows countries to reduce their water consumption by importing goods

• However, it can also lead to further water stress through exporting goods

  • The Ica Valley is in the dry, coastal region of Peru and is one of the few places in the world, where high-quality asparagus can grow all year round

  • Over 317 million cubic metres of water is needed from the aquifer to grow the exported asparagus

  • This has reduced available water in the aquifer by over 60% and at its current rate, the aquifer will run dry within the next 20 years

Availability & Consumption of Land/Food

• The world population is now over 8 billion people

• The growth of population leads to an increasing demand for food

• It is estimated by the Food and Agriculture Organisation that 60% more food will be needed to feed the world population by 2050

• Development leads to nutrition transition, which also increases consumption of food

  • The lower calorie intake in many countries in Africa is due to:

    • Less food being available

    • Lower meat consumption

  • In HICs and increasingly in emerging countries, the high calorie intake is the result of increasing meat intake and more 'fast food'

    • Meat consumption in Vietnam increased from 28.6kg per person (2002) to 63.34kg per person (2020)

  • The growth of the new global middle class (NGMC) means that people have more disposable income 

  • People are able to afford a more varied diet, which increases the consumption of imported foods

• Increased calorie intake has also led to a growth in obesity and diet related diseases

What are the challenges of nutrient transition?

• The increase in meat consumption and changes in diet resulting from nutrition transition have a number of impacts

• Livestock farming:

  • Increases the demand for animal feed

• Increases pressure on water supplies

• Leads to an increase in methane production, contributing to climate change

• Clearance of land for grazing and crop production increases deforestation

Availability & Consumption of Energy

The global demand for energy

• The global demand for energy has increased significantly since the 1950s

• Energy consumption can be measured in several ways, including:

  • Kilograms or tonnes of oil equivalent per year (kgoe/yr)

  • Terawatt hours (TWh) or Megawatt hours (MWh)

  • Gigajoules (GJ/yr) or exajoules per year (EJ/yr)

• It is predicted that energy demand will increase by nearly 50% by 2050

What are the causes of the increase in energy consumption?

• An increasing global population; the more people there are, the higher the demand for energy

• The growth of the NGMC means that people have more devices, appliances and vehicles which use energy

  • The increasing availability of electricity means people in LICs are moving away from reliance on fuelwood for heating and cooking

• Development leads to more industries, which consume increasing amounts of energy

What is energy mix?

• Each country has a unique energy mix to meet their energy demand

• The primary energy sources that are used to generate electricity include:

  • Non-renewable fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas

  • Renewable energy sources such as wind, geothermal, hydroelectricity and solar

  • Recyclable fuels such as nuclear energy, biomass and general waste

• Each country's energy mix will vary as a result of several factors

• The energy mix of the USA is also significantly different from that of France 

  • The USA only has 10% coming from renewable energy and 8% from nuclear 

  • France has 10% from renewables and 41% from nuclear energy

• France relies on 46% of its energy supplies being imported, as all of its natural gas and oil are imported along with the uranium required for its nuclear power

• The USA only imports around 15%

• Countries in Asia, including China and Indonesia, rely heavily on non-renewables, particularly coal, because it is:

  • Readily available 

  • Cheaper than other energy sources

Factors Affecting the Energy Mix

• It is important for countries to have a balance between domestic energy sources and imported energy sources to ensure energy security

Changing importance of energy sources

Decreasing use of hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbons, also known as non-renewable fossil fuels, are becoming less popular as energy sources due to concerns about the environment 

  • Climate change

  • Air pollution

  • Destruction of habitats during mining and drilling

• Hydrocarbons are finite and, at some point, will run out

• Some countries have invested in fracking to increase the supplies of hydrocarbons

Increasing use of renewable energy

• Renewable energy is increasingly important in the global energy mix

• Countries want to reduce their reliance on imports of non-renewable energy sources and improve their energy security

• Reduction in the cost of renewable energy sources

• Advances in technology mean that renewable energy is more efficient

• Renewable energy has less impact on the environment

Changes in nuclear energy

• Nuclear energy uses nuclear fission to generate electricity

• The process does not produce greenhouse gases

• Some countries, such as Germany, are reducing the use of nuclear power due to concerns regarding:

  • Safety

  • Storage of nuclear waste

• Other countries, such as France, rely on nuclear power for a large portion of their energy production

• Many countries are researching and investing in nuclear fusion this would:

  • Produce significantly lower amounts of waste

  • Eliminate the risk of nuclear accidents