Self-report: Questionnaires (AQA AS Psychology)

Questionnaires

• A questionnaire is a type of  self-report which involves participants answering a range of questions designed to collect their thoughts, feelings, attitudes, attributes and opinions

• Questionnaires may be used

  • to understand how people feel about issues such as immigration, social media, the cost of living etc.

  • to measure psychometric properties such as IQ, depression, empathy, decision-making etc.

  • conducting a large-scale survey to assess the extent to which people are, for example, likely to vote, consult a doctor, use green energy etc.

• Questionnaires can consist of either closed questions or open questions or a combination of both types of questions e.g.

  • closed question: Are you happy?

  • open question: What would you change about your life to increase your overall happiness?

  • combination of closed and open questions: Are you happy? Yes or no? Explain why you answered yes or no

Evaluation of questionnaires

Strengths

• Questionnaires are a quick, easy and convenient method of gathering data

  • Large samples can be reached via the use of electronic survey tools

  • Large samples produce reliable results as any anomalous results are averaged by the overall trend of the data

• Questionnaires use standardised questions which means that they can be replicated to check for reliability

  • The test-retest method can check for external reliability

  • The split-half method can check for internal reliability

Limitations

• There is a tendency for people to under-report negative and over-report positive aspects of themselves when completing a questionnaire

  • This means that questionnaires can lead to participants succumbing to social desirability bias

  • Any form of bias in research impairs the validity of the findings

• Questionnaires tend to under-utilise open questions which limits their usefulness

  • This means that they can show the 'what' of behaviour (e.g. people become more cautious with age) but not the 'why' of that behaviour (e.g. why do people become more cautious with age?)

Closed questions & open questions

Closed questions

• A closed question offers limited options for the participant’s response, for example:

  • Do you agree that young people are more anxious than previous generations?

    • Answer: Yes or No

  • Which of the following words best describes you? 

    • a) Sociable    b)Shy    c) Reclusive    d) Hostile

• Closed questions generate quantitative data, e.g.

  • the number of ‘yes’ responses across the questionnaire

  • the number of times a participant ticked b)

  • the total score is calculated from the scaled questions e.g. 2 + 4 + 7

Open questions

• An open question offers freedom of response e.g.

  • Tell me about one time when you felt anxious

  • How do you think other people would describe you? 

• Open questions generate qualitative data, e.g.

  • the transcript of an interview

  • the themes which have emerged during a conversation or interview

  • the thoughts, ideas and feelings of the participant which cannot be ‘boiled down’ into neat numerical data and which relate only to that individual

Evaluation of closed questions & open questions

Strengths

• Closed questions provide quantitative data which is easier to analyse and spot patterns/trends in

  • The data can be presented graphically and analysed statistically

  • Thus, reliability can be high, particularly if the questionnaire is distributed to a large sample

• An open question may ask participants to expand on the answers they give, allowing both researcher and participant to clarify, explain and qualify their comments

  • This means that open questions have good explanatory power and external validity

Limitations

• The quantitative data obtained from closed questions sacrifices the level of detail and insight required to understand reasons and explanations

  • This means that closed questions lack validity

• Open questions are difficult to analyse due to their subjective nature

  • The researcher must interpret meaning and intention from them which could give rise to a lack of consistency and objectivity

  • This means that open questions lack reliability

Designing questionnaires

• When designing a questionnaire, the researcher must consider the following points:

  • Aim

    • What is the questionnaire’s purpose, and how will it aid the research process?

  • Length

    • The questionnaire cannot be too short as this would result in a lack of data

    • The questionnaire cannot be too long as participants will become bored and may answer without care or full attention

  • Question construction

    • Questions should be clear, concise and unambiguous

    • Will the questionnaire use closed questions, open questions or a combination of both?

• Fixed-choice questions ask the participant to choose from one of the options provided e.g.

  • Do you eat junk food at least once a week?

    • Yes or No

  • Why do you eat junk food?

    • a) I like the taste

    • b) It's affordable

    • c) It's quick and easy

    • d) All of the above

• Likert scale questions allow the participant to express the degree of their agreement with a statement e.g.

  • I eat junk food because my friends also eat junk food

    • Strongly agree

    • Agree

    • Slightly agree

    • Disagree

    • Strongly disagree

• Rating scale questions are similar to Likert scale questions in which participants select a value that corresponds to how strongly they feel about an idea/topic e.g.

  • How healthy do you think junk food is?

    • Completely unhealthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very healthy

• Open questions should be designed to allow the participant to open up and express their ideas, feelings and opinions in ways which do not restrict or limit them e.g.

  • Describe a time when you craved junk food

  • Can you explain why you think junk food is so popular with young people?

• Some questionnaires include a lie scale

  • Lie scales consist of statements that test the truth of the participant's responses

  • Lie scales are not designed to catch people out

    • They are useful to spot where participants have fallen into the temptation of mindlessly ticking all the nth or random boxes

  • One way to incorporate a lie scale is to include similar questions that are re-worded versions of the original question e.g.

    • How far do you agree with the statement, 'I never regret the decisions I have made'

    • Lie scale: 'I have never done anything which I then later wish I un-do'

  • If participants are answering truthfully then their scores for both of the above questions will be identical or at least very close

Writing good questions

• Researchers must ensure that the questions included in the questionnaire are

  • clear

  • unambiguous

  • on-topic

• If participants are confused or unsure as to what the question is asking them their responses will reflect this, which in turn impairs the validity of the questionnaire

• Leading questions have the effect of providing the expected answer within the question

  • Instead of asking the question like this:

    • Wouldn't you agree that junk food is wrecking the health of the nation?

  • The question should be worded like this

    • How far do you agree with the idea that junk food is bad for people's health?

  • Note also that the leading question above includes an emotional element ('wrecking the health of the nation') whereas the improved version of that question is neutral and emotion-free

• Questions which include overly technical or jargonistic terms may lead to misunderstanding or participants drawing a complete blank on how to answer

  • Instead of asking the question like this

    • Do you agree that the dopaminergic pathways of the mesolimbic system are implicated in the consumption of junk food?

  • The question should be worded like this

    • How much do you know about the effect of junk food on the brain?

• Double-barrelled questions are to be avoided as the participant is left not knowing which part of the question to answer

  • Instead of asking the question like this

    • To what extent do you agree that junk food is bad for children and should be banned from being advertised on TV?

  • The question should be separated into two different questions like this

    • To what extent do you agree that junk food is bad for children?

    • How far do you agree with the statement, 'Junk food should be banned from being advertised on TV?'

• Double negatives should not be used in questions as the use of two negative ideas 'cancels each other out' and may confuse participants

  • Instead of asking the question like this

    • Can you remember a time when you didn't not like junk food?

  • The question should be worded like this

    • Can you remember a time when you felt differently about junk food?