Operant Conditioning & Skinner's Research (AQA AS Psychology)

Operant conditioning & types of reinforcement

• Operant conditioning (OC) is learning via consequences

  • Along with classical conditioning, it is one of the core assumptions which underpin the behaviourist approach

• Where classical conditioning emphasises the stimulus-response mechanism of learned behaviour, OC emphasises the role of reward and reinforcement in behaviour

  • Some behaviours will be repeated based on their positive consequences e.g. 'That burger was yummy, I'll certainly be paying another visit to Junkfood Shack!' 

  • Some behaviours will not be repeated based on their negative consequences e.g. 'That's the last time I'm getting my lunch from Kale City!' 

  • Some behaviours will be repeated not for their positive consequences but to avoid their negative consequences e.g. 'I suppose I'd better choose the lentil and sprout salad just to stop my friend nagging me about how unhealthy my diet is'

• Consequences are learned via three types of direct reinforcement:

  • Positive reinforcement

    • Performing a behaviour to experience the positive consequences e.g. completing homework to gain praise from the teacher 

  • Negative reinforcement

    • Performing a behaviour to avoid unpleasant consequences e.g. completing homework to prevent being given a detention

  • Punishment

    • A type of deterrent that can be positive/direct e.g. told off by the teacher

    • A deterrent can also be negative/indirect e.g.not being allowed to attend a party 

• The consequence of the performed behaviour is known as the reinforcer e.g.

  • praise from the teacher is a positive reinforcer

  • a detention is a negative reinforcer

Skinner's research

• B.F. Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate upon their environment (hence, 'operant conditioning')

• Skinner identified three types of operant

  • Neutral operants

    • Environmental forces that neither increase nor decrease the repetition of a specific behaviour

  • Reinforcers

    • Environmental forces that increase the repetition of a specific behaviour

    • A positive reinforcer is a behaviour which is repeated to enjoy the pleasant consequences

    • A negative reinforcer is a behaviour which is repeated to avoid unpleasant consequences

  • Punishers

    • Environmental forces that decrease the repetition of a specific behaviour

• Skinner set up a series of experiments to determine how animals learn from the consequences of their actions, dependent upon the specific operants he implemented

• Skinner devised a box known as the 'Skinner Box' 

  • Skinner placed one rat at a time inside the box

  • Each box contained different stimuli, including a lever that released food (the rat's reward) and an electroplated floor (the rat's punishment)

  • Positive reinforcement was demonstrated by placing a hungry rat in the box

    • The box contained a lever which the rat (initially) accidentally triggered as it explored the box

    • Upon triggering the lever a food pellet was delivered (reward)

    • The rats quickly learned (it only took them a few tries) to go straight to the lever

    • The consequence/reward (food) of pressing the lever saw them repeating the action over and over again

  • Negative reinforcement was demonstrated by placing a rat in the box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric shock (punishment)

    • The rat (initially) accidentally triggered the lever as it explored the box

    • Upon triggering the lever the electric current was switched off (unpleasant sensations stopped)

    • The rats quickly learned to trigger the lever immediately as soon as they were placed in the box

    • The consequence/reward of escaping the electric shock saw them repeating the action over and over again

  • In another variation, the rats learned to avoid the electric shock (punishment) by pressing the lever when the light came on (avoiding punishment = negative reinforcement)

Evaluation of operant conditioning & Skinner's research

Strengths

• OC has good application to the maintenance of phobias

  • Someone with social phobia uses avoidance to stay away from any events involving people, socialising etc.

  • The use of avoidance is an example of negative reinforcement i.e. taking steps to keep away from large gatherings of people

  • The more the avoidance is repeated the more the phobic person is rewarded with feelings of relief and security

• Skinner used standardised procedures in controlled conditions which means that his research has good reliability

  • Reliability is a strength of experimental research as it satisfies the criteria for falsifiability i.e. the theory can be tested scientifically

Limitations

• OC cannot explain why some people may repeat behaviours which are damaging, detrimental or unpleasant

  • People who self-harm may do so for the specific relief it brings them but such behaviours would not be recognised as positive reinforcers by OC

  • People who continue to smoke even though they may find the taste and the smell of cigarettes unpleasant defy the assumptions of OC

• Skinner's research is overly simplistic (environmental reductionism)

  • Humans are much more complex and sophisticated than animals and operate at a higher cognitive level

    • People are more able to take control of their behaviour via mechanisms such as self-efficacy than the behaviourists give them credit for