Impacts of Human Activity on Antarctica (Cambridge (CIE) AS Environmental Management)

Human Impacts on Antarctica

• Antarctica is the fifth largest continent on Earth

• It is surrounded by the Southern Ocean

• It is the coldest place on Earth:

  • No trees or bushes exist there – the only plants present are mosses and algae

• However, the surrounding ocean waters are very biodiverse, supporting complex communities and food webs that are able to sustain large populations of seal and whale species

• Antarctica is facing many threats, mainly due to human activity, including:

  • Climate change

  • Ozone depletion

  • Tourism

  • Overfishing

  • Future mineral and oil extraction

  • Scientific research

Climate Change & Antarctica

• Antarctica is experiencing a much faster rate of warming than the rest of the world with temperatures rising by 2-3 times the global average

• As glaciers and ice sheets melt, this causes warming to accelerate even further:

  • The dark-coloured ocean or land surface absorbs more of the sun’s energy, rather than reflecting it back into space

  • This causes more warming, contributing to a positive feedback loop

• The melting of glaciers and ice sheets brings significant changes to the environment and contributes to global sea level rise

• Antarctica is losing ice mass at an average rate of 150 million tonnes per year

• Melting ice could disrupt ocean currents, impacting global weather patterns and marine life

• Warming causes shifts in the timing of seasonal events such as the breeding and migration of penguins and other seabirds, as well as increasing the likelihood of invasive species

• Climate change causes ocean acidification, which could cause a severe decline in phytoplankton and krill, potentially undermining the entire marine ecosystem

Tourism in Antarctica

• The number of tourists travelling to Antarcitca has been steadily increasing from fewer than 2 000 visitors a year in the 1980s, to almost 75 000 in 2019/2020

• There are several reasons for this growth:

  • Improved transport has made it easier and more affordable to travel

  • Growing demand for adventure travel and unique experiences attracts people seeking to explore remote and pristine environments

  • Rising incomes mean that more people can afford to travel to Antarctica

• 18 000 of these tourists visited by cruise liner and did not step foot in Antarctica

• More shipping and air travel can increase pollution and there are fears that more tourists mean increased disruption to feeding and breeding patterns

Overfishing & Whaling in Antarctica

• Unsustainable fishing is a major threat, with species such as the Patagonian Toothfish at risk of becoming endangered

• Overfishing of krill could undermine the entire marine ecosystem because they are a primary food source for many species such as whales, seals and penguins:

  • If krill populations decline, it could lead to population declines and potential extinctions of other species that depend on krill as a food source

• Illegal and unregulated fishing is difficult to monitor and has increased over the last 10 years

• Fishing also threatens species such as albatross and petrels, which get caught in fishing lines and drown

• Historically, commercial whaling was a significant threat with many whale species hunted to near extinction

• Whaling has declined since commercial whaling was banned, though some countries, such as Norway and Japan, continue to hunt whales 

• It takes a very long time for whale populations to recover because whales are very slow to reproduce:

  • Most whale species only give birth to one calf at a time, and the gestation period lasts between 9 and 18 months

Exploitation of Mineral Resources in Antarctica

• Antarctica has various mineral resources such as coal, iron ore, copper, gold and platinum

• There are also large reserves of oil under the Southern Ocean

• The resources would be difficult to extract due to the harsh environment and lack of accessibility

• Mineral extraction is currently banned, but there are fears that pressure may increase due to the rising demand for resources and melting ice, which makes them more accessible

• Mining in the Antarctic would have a significant impact on the environment and would threaten the delicate balance of the ecosystems in the region:

  • Habitat destruction and wildlife disturbance would result from the building of roads and other infrastructure 

  • Pollution and toxic waste are often byproducts in mining operations that would contaminate land and water

  • Oil spills would have a devastating and long-term impact, perhaps remaining in the environment for decades due to the low temperatures

Scientific Research in Antarctica

• Scientific research is essential to understand the unique ecosystems and climate of Antarctica

• Scientists and their support staff live temporarily in 82 research stations, with the population reaching a peak of 5 000 during the summer months and dropping to 1 000 in the winter months

• Research activities such as drilling can disturb wildlife and disrupt breeding or feeding patterns

• Research stations need fuel and supplies which can lead to pollution from the ships and vehicles that deliver them

• There are problems with waste disposal:

  • Solid waste is transported away from Antarctica and disposed of

  • Sewage waste is another issue; in some areas seal and penguin populations are exposed to high levels of bacteria :

    • This led to the building of a waste treatment plant at Australia’s Davis station

  • Waste treatment still varies widely between research stations

• Scientists may accidentally introduce invasive species, which could endanger the fragile ecosystem

Managing Human Impacts on Antarctica

• Strategies for managing the impacts of human activity on Antarctica include:

  • Legislation and international agreement (the Antarctic Treaty 1959)

  • Protected areas

  • Fisheries regulation

  • Prohibited activities such as mineral extraction

  • Protection from non-native animals or plants

  • Waste management

  • Tourism control and permits for travel

The Antarctic Treaty 1959

• The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959, is a landmark international agreement aimed at preserving Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science:

  • It prohibits military activities, nuclear testing, and mineral exploitation while promoting scientific research and international cooperation

• The Antarctic Treaty has been instrumental in managing human impacts on Antarctica by fostering collaborative research efforts, establishing guidelines for environmental protection and preventing the exploitation of Antarctic resources for commercial gain

• However, the treaty's effectiveness relies on voluntary compliance, and challenges remain in enforcing its aims and addressing emerging threats such as climate change and increasing human activity

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Antarctic Treaty 

• As pressure on Antarctica grew, it was decided that the Treaty needed to be strengthened to enhance the protection of the environment

• The Protocol on Environmental Protection (also known as the Madrid Protocol) was signed by 45 nations in 1991:

  • It established Antarctica as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science"

Protected Areas

• Protected areas in Antarctica, such as Specially Protected Areas (SPAs) and Specially Managed Areas (SMAs), are designated to conserve unique ecosystems, habitats and species from human disturbance:

  • SPAs are areas of ecological, scientific, historic or aesthetic significance, while SMAs are managed for specific research or conservation purposes

• These protected areas play a crucial role in managing human impacts by restricting access to sensitive habitats, minimising disturbances to wildlife and preserving Antarctic ecosystems

• However, the effectiveness of protected areas depends on adequate enforcement, monitoring and scientific research to inform management decisions and ensure their long-term conservation value

Fisheries Regulation

• Fisheries in Antarctica are regulated by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), established in 1982:

  • CCAMLR manages fisheries to ensure the conservation of marine living resources and ecosystems in the Southern Ocean while allowing for sustainable harvesting of fish and krill

• Fisheries regulation is essential for managing human impacts on Antarctic marine ecosystems by preventing overexploitation, protecting vulnerable species and maintaining ecosystem integrity

• CCAMLR's ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management considers the ecological relationships between species and helps minimise the ecological footprint of fishing activities

Prohibited Activities

• The Antarctic Treaty prohibits mineral extraction and commercial exploitation of resources in Antarctica to preserve its pristine environment and prevent irreversible damage to its ecosystems:

  • This prohibition includes mining activities for minerals such as oil, gas, coal and metals

• Prohibiting mineral extraction safeguards Antarctica's unique ecosystems, preventing habitat destruction and avoiding pollution from mining activities

• However, the prohibition faces challenges in addressing potential future demands for Antarctic resources and ensuring compliance among treaty parties and non-member states

Protection from Non-Native Animals or Plants

• Measures are in place to prevent the introduction of non-native species to Antarctica, as invasive species can have devastating effects on native wildlife and ecosystems:

  • These measures include strict biosecurity protocols for research stations, quarantine procedures for equipment and supplies and monitoring of human activities

Waste Management

• Waste management practices in Antarctica include waste reduction, recycling, waste segregation, treatment of sewage and wastewater and removal of waste from the continent:

  • Proper waste management is crucial for mitigating human impacts on Antarctica by preventing contamination of soil, water and wildlife habitats

Tourism Control & Travel Permits

• Tourism in Antarctica is regulated through permits, guidelines and codes of conduct to manage the environmental, social and safety impacts of tourism activities:

  • Permits are required for travel to Antarctica, and tour operators must adhere to strict regulations to minimise disturbances to wildlife and habitats

  • Controlling tourism and issuing permits for travel are essential to limit visitor numbers, control access to sensitive areas and ensure sustainable tourism practices