1. Biological Molecules

1.1 Biological Molecules: Carbohydrates

1.1.1 Biological Molecules: Key Terms

1.1.2 Biological Molecules: Reactions

1.1.3 Monosaccharides

1.1.4 Glucose

1.1.5 The Glycosidic Bond

1.1.6 Chromatography: Monosaccharides

1.1.7 Disaccharides

1.1.8 Starch & Glycogen

1.1.9 Cellulose

1.1.10 Biochemical Tests: Sugars & Starch

1.1.11 Finding the Concentration of Glucose

1.2 Biological Molecules: Lipids

1.2.1 Lipids

1.2.2 Triglyceride Function

1.2.3 Phospholipids

1.2.4 Biochemical Tests: Lipids

1.2.5 Lipid Diagrams & Properties

1.3 Biological Molecules: Proteins

1.3.1 Amino Acids & the Peptide Bond

1.3.2 Chromatography: Amino Acids

1.3.3 Protein Structure & Function

1.3.4 Protein Interactions

1.3.5 Biochemical Tests: Proteins

1.3.6 Globular & Fibrous Proteins

1.3.7 The Molecular Structure of Haemoglobin

1.3.8 The Molecular Structure of Collagen

1.4 Proteins: Enzymes

1.4.1 Many Proteins are Enzymes

1.4.2 Enzyme Specificity

1.4.3 How Enzymes Work

1.4.4 Required Practical: Measuring Enzyme Activity

1.4.5 Maths Skill: Drawing a Graph for Enzyme Rate Experiments

1.4.6 Maths Skill: Using a Tangent to Find Initial Rate of Reaction

1.4.7 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Temperature

1.4.8 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: pH

1.4.9 Maths Skill: Calculating pH

1.4.10 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Enzyme Concentration

1.4.11 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Substrate Concentration

1.4.12 Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Inhibitors

1.4.13 Models & Functions of Enzyme Action

1.4.14 Practical Skill: Controlling Variables & Calculating Uncertainty

1.5 Nucleic Acids: Structure & DNA Replication

1.5.1 The Function of DNA & RNA

1.5.2 Nucleotide Structure & the Phosphodiester Bond

1.5.3 The Structure of DNA

1.5.4 The Structure of RNA

1.5.5 Ribosomes

1.5.6 The Origins of Research on the Genetic Code

1.5.7 Semi-Conservative Replication

1.5.8 The Process of Semi-Conservative Replication

1.5.9 Calculating the Frequency of Nucleotide Bases

1.5.10 The Watson Crick Model

1.6 ATP, Water & Inorganic Ions

1.6.1 The Structure of ATP

1.6.2 Hydrolysis & Synthesis of ATP

1.6.3 The Properties of Water

1.6.4 Inorganic Ions

2. Cell Structure

2.1 Cell Structure

2.1.1 The Cell Theory

2.1.2 Structure of Eukaryotic Cells

2.1.3 Specialisation of Eukaryotic Cells

2.1.4 Eukaryotic Cell Organisation

2.1.5 Structure of Prokaryotic Cells

2.1.6 Prokaryotic v Eukaryotic Cells

2.1.7 Viruses

2.2 The Microscope in Cell Studies

2.2.1 Methods of studying cells

2.2.2 Microscopy & Drawing Scientific Diagrams

2.2.3 Iodine Detects Starch Grains

2.2.4 Resolution & Magnification

2.2.5 Magnification Calculations

2.2.6 Cell Fractionation & Ultracentrifugation

2.2.7 Scientific Research into Cell Organelles

2.3 Cell Division in Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic Cells

2.3.1 Interphase

2.3.2 Mitosis

2.3.3 The Stages of Mitosis

2.3.4 Cytokinesis

2.3.5 Recognising the Stages of Mitosis

2.3.6 Investigating Plant Root Tips

2.3.7 Uncontrolled Cell Division & Cancer

2.3.8 Binary Fission

2.3.9 Viral Particle Replication

2.4 Cell Membranes & Transport

2.4.1 The Structure of Cell Membranes

2.4.2 Components of Cell Surface Membranes

2.4.3 The Cell Surface Membrane

2.4.4 Diffusion

2.4.5 Osmosis

2.4.6 Osmosis in Plant Cells

2.4.7 Osmosis in Animal Cells

2.4.8 Comparing Osmosis in Animal & Plant Cells

2.4.9 Water Potential Calibration Curves

2.4.10 Active Transport & Co-transport

2.4.11 Adaptations for Rapid Transport

2.4.12 Specialised Cells

2.4.13 Factors Affecting Membrane Fluidity

2.5 Cell Recognition & the Immune System

2.5.1 Cell Recognition

2.5.2 Antigens

2.5.3 Phagocytosis

2.5.4 The T Lymphocyte Response

2.5.5 The Role of Antigen-Presenting Cells

2.5.6 The Role of Helper T cells

2.5.7 The B lymphocyte Response

2.5.8 Antibodies

2.5.9 Antigen-Antibody Complex

2.5.10 Plasma & Memory Cells

2.6 Vaccines, Disease & Monoclonal Antibodies

2.6.1 Vaccines

2.6.2 Active & Passive Immunity

2.6.3 HIV

2.6.4 AIDS

2.6.5 Monoclonal Antibodies

2.6.6 Ethical Issues with Vaccines & Monoclonal Antibodies

2.6.7 ELISA

3. Exchange & Transport

3.1 Adaptations for Gas Exchange

3.1.1 Surface Area to Volume Ratio

3.1.2 Agar Blocks Practical

3.1.3 Adaptation to Facilitate Exchange

3.1.4 SA:V Ratio & Metabolic Rate

3.1.5 Adaptations of Gas Exchange Surfaces

3.1.6 Gas Exchange vs Water Loss

3.2 Human Gas Exchange

3.2.1 The Human Gas Exchange System

3.2.2 Dissecting the Gas Exchange System

3.2.3 Looking at the Gas Exchange under the Microscope

3.2.4 Three-way Taps

3.2.5 The Alveolar Epithelium

3.2.6 Ventilation & Gas Exchange

3.2.7 PVR

3.2.8 The Effects of Lung Disease

3.2.9 Pollution & Smoking

3.2.10 Evaluating Data on Lung Disease

3.2.11 Correlations & Causal Relationships - The Lungs

3.3 Digestion & Absorption

3.3.1 Digestion

3.3.2 Enzymes in Digestion

3.3.3 Enzyme Rate Practical

3.3.4 Mechanisms of Absorption

3.3.5 Visking Tubing Practical

3.4 Mass Transport in Animals

3.4.1 Features of Mass Transport

3.4.2 Haemoglobin & Oxygen

3.4.3 The Role of Haemoglobin

3.4.4 The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

3.4.5 The Bohr Shift

3.4.6 Cardiac Output

3.4.7 Animal Adaptations For Their Environment

3.5 The Circulatory System in Animals

3.5.1 Mammalian Circulation

3.5.2 The Human Heart

3.5.3 The Walls of the Heart

3.5.4 The Cardiac Cycle

3.5.5 Investigating Heart Rate

3.5.6 Blood Vessels

3.5.7 Capillaries & Tissue Fluid

3.5.8 Interpreting Data on the Cardiovascular System

3.5.9 Correlations & Causal Relationships - The Heart

3.5.10 Required Practical: Dissecting Mass Transport Systems

3.6 Mass Transport in Plants

3.6.1 Water Transport in the Xylem

3.6.2 Transpiration

3.6.3 Potometer

3.6.4 Movement in the Phloem

3.6.5 The Sucrose Loading Mechanism

3.6.6 The Mass Flow Hypothesis

3.6.7 Data on the Mass Flow Hypothesis

3.6.8 Tracer & Ringing Experiments

4. Genetics, Variation & Interdependence

4.1 DNA, Genes & Chromosomes

4.1.1 Prokaryotic DNA

4.1.2 Eukaryotic DNA

4.1.3 Mitochondria & Chloroplast DNA

4.1.4 Genes

4.1.5 Genetic Loci

4.1.6 The Triplet Code

4.1.7 Non-Coding DNA

4.2 DNA & Protein Synthesis

4.2.1 The Genome

4.2.2 The Structure of RNA

4.2.3 Transcription

4.2.4 Eukaryotic Transcription

4.2.5 Translation

4.2.6 Nucleic Acid & Amino Acid Sequence Comparison

4.3 Genetic Diversity: Mutations & Meiosis

4.3.1 Genetic Mutations

4.3.2 Mutations in Chromosome Number

4.3.3 Meiosis

4.3.4 Meiosis in Animal & Plant cells

4.3.5 Meiosis: Sources of Genetic Variation

4.3.6 Meiosis Under a Microscope

4.3.7 The Outcomes & Processes of Mitosis & Meiosis

4.4 Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

4.4.1 Genetic Diversity

4.4.2 Maths Skill: Using Logarithms When Investigating Bacteria

4.4.3 Natural Selection

4.4.4 Directional & Stabilising Selection

4.4.5 Environmental Adaption

4.4.6 Investigating Microbial Growth

4.5 Species & Taxonomy

4.5.1 Courtship

4.5.2 Phylogenetic Classification

4.5.3 Hierarchy of the Taxa

4.5.4 Evolutionary Relationships

4.6 Biodiversity

4.6.1 Biodiversity Within a Community

4.6.2 Species Richness

4.6.3 Index of Diversity

4.6.4 Conservation & Farming

4.6.5 Investigating Diversity

4.6.6 Random Sampling

4.6.7 Quantitative Investigations of Variation

4.6.8 Mean & Standard Deviation

4.6.9 Genetic Relationships Between Organisms

Study tools

• AQA AS Biology · Exam Questions
• AQA AS Biology · Past Papers