Economic & Social Challenges in Cities (College Board AP® Human Geography)

Housing & Housing Discrimination

• Housing discrimination has historically taken several forms, including:

  • blockbusting

  • redlining

  • gentrification

Blockbusting

• Blockbusting: the practice of real estate agents trying to induce people to sell their homes at low prices

• This is achieved by implying that property values were going down due to increased minority presence in the neighborhood

  • This practice created significant benefits for real estate agents who then resold the houses at a higher price

  • It also led to “white flight” to the suburbs

    • “White flight” refers to the process of white residents leaving an area as it becomes more racially or ethnically diverse

    • White flight has historically tended to mean the movement of the white population from urban areas to suburbs

Redlining

• Redlining refers to the historic discriminatory real estate practice in which banks refused to give home loans to minorities

  • The “red lines” indicated areas on maps where lenders would refuse to make loans

  • The practice of redlining has had severe long-term consequences for minority households and neighborhoods

    • Many minority families were unable to ever access home ownership or generational wealth

  • Redlined districts have tended to remain in poverty because of the lack of homeownership and underdevelopment

  • Redlined districts also suffer from disproportionate environmental degradation and industrial pollution

Gentrification

• Gentrification refers to the changes that a neighborhood undergoes as wealthy residents move in

  • The migration of wealthy residents into these areas attracts revitalization and renewal projects, as well as new economic developments 

• Gentrification can have both positive and negative effects:

  • The benefits of gentrification include: 

    • improved housing 

    • improved infrastructure 

    • new employment opportunities 

    • an increase in tourism to the area

  • The drawbacks of gentrification include: 

    • the displacement of traditional, poorer, and usually minority residents as property values become too expensive 

    • the lack of affordable housing in the area, and the dismissal of the needs of traditional residents 

Access to Services

• Lower-income neighborhoods often lack investment in public services and infrastructure

• They may also lack access to:

  • affordable housing

  • food

  • educational opportunities

  • healthcare

  • transportation

• This lack of access to services perpetuates income inequality in urban areas

Rising Crime

• Urban areas may experience rising crime rates

• The causes of increasing crime rates include: 

  • a lack of economic and job opportunities

  • high unemployment

  • a lack of educational opportunities

• Increases in crime rates can lead to urban decay and often result in wealthier residents leaving and moving to suburbs

Environmental Injustice

• Environmental injustice refers to the disproportionate exposure of minority and low-income communities to environmental hazards, such as:

  • pollution

  • poor air and water quality

  • toxic waste

• This disproportionate exposure has negative effects on health and reduces the quality of life in these communities

Disamenity Zones

• Disamenity zones or “zones of abandonment” are areas within a city lacking basic services and infrastructure

• These zones are often filled with slums and may contain many unhoused individuals

• These areas are characterized by: 

  • poverty

  • crime

  • unemployment

  • suffer from a lack of public investment

Squatter Settlements

• Squatter settlements are residential areas located on the outskirts of cities

• These settlements are characterized by informal housing and often lack legal recognition or access to government services and infrastructure

• Squatter settlements are characterized by extreme poverty and residents lack access to most services

• Squatter settlements are generally meant to be temporary, but end up becoming permanent

• Squatter settlements tend to be located on the edge of cities on vacant or undesirable land that lacks a clear title of ownership

• The causes leading to the formation of squatter settlements include:

  • rapid urbanization

  • failure to enforce land use policies

  • a high demand for affordable housing