Evolution (College Board AP® Biology)

Identify whether morphological data or amino acid sequence data are more likely to accurately represent the true evolutionary relationships among the species, and provide reasoning for your answer.

TABLE 1. DIVERGENCE (IN PERCENT) OF MITOCHONDRIAL DNA SEQUENCES AMONG FIVE PRIMATE SPECIES

A researcher studying the evolutionary relationship among five primate species obtained data from a sequence of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from a representative individual of each species. The researcher then calculated the percent divergence in the sequences between each pair of primate species (Table 1).

Based on fossil data, the researcher estimates that humans and their most closely related species in the data set diverged approximately seven million years ago. Using these data, calculate the rate of mtDNA percent divergence per million years between humans and their most closely related species in the data set. Round your answer to two decimal places.

Mammalian milk contains antibodies that are produced by the mother's immune system and passed to offspring during feeding. Mammalian milk also contains a sugar (lactose) and may contain proteins (protein A, protein B, and casein), as indicated in the table.

MILK COMPONENTS IN DIFFERENT MAMMALS

Using the data in the table, construct a cladogram on the template provided to indicate the most likely evolutionary relationships among the different mammals. Indicate on the cladogram where each of the characters most likely arose in the evolutionary process, and justify the placement of the characters on the cladogram.

The amino acid sequence of cytochrome c was determined for five different species of vertebrates. The table below shows the number of differences in the sequences between each pair of species.

THE NUMBER OF AMINO ACID DIFFERENCES IN CYTOCHROME c AMONG FIVE SPECIES  

Using the data in the table, create a phylogenetic tree on the template provided to reflect the evolutionary relationships of the organisms. Provide reasoning for the placement on the tree of the species that is least related to the others.

Figure 1. Phylogenetic tree representing the evolutionary relatedness among bear populations based on mitochondrial DNA sequence comparisons

Polar bears are highly adapted for life in cold climates around the North Pole. Brown bears, black bears, and pandas are found in warmer environments. Researchers collected complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from several populations of bears and  constructed a phylogenetic tree to represent their evolutionary relatedness (Figure 1).

A researcher studying adaptation in bears sequenced the nuclear gene encoding a lysosomal trafficking protein (LYST) in polar bears, brown bears, black bears, and panda bears. There are seven inferred amino acid substitutions that are found only in polar bears. Mutations that cause similar substitutions in the human LYST protein are associated with Chediak-Higashi syndrome, an autosomal recessive condition in which pigment is absent from the hair and eyes. The researcher used the inferred amino acid sequences to build the distance matrix shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1. AMINO ACID DIFFERENCES IN THE LYST PROTEIN AMONG BEAR SPECIES

Use the phylogenetic tree in Figure 1 to estimate the age in hundreds of thousands of years of the most recent common ancestor of all brown bears. Identify the population of brown bears to which polar bears are most closely related based on the mitochondrial DNA sequence comparison. Identify two populations whose positions could be switched without affecting the relationships illustrated in the phylogenetic tree.

Construct a cladogram on the template to represent a model of the evolutionary relatedness among the bear species based on the differences in LYST protein sequences (Table 1). Circle the position on the cladogram that represents the out-group.

TABLE 1. DIVERGENCE (IN PERCENT) OF MITOCHONDRIAL DNA SEQUENCES AMONG FIVE PRIMATE SPECIES

A researcher studying the evolutionary relationship among five primate species obtained data from a sequence of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from a representative individual of each species. The researcher then calculated the percent divergence in the sequences between each pair of primate species (Table 1).

Using the data in the table, construct a cladogram on the template provided. Provide reasoning for the placement of gibbons as the outgroup on the cladogram.

On the cladogram, draw a circle around all of the species that are descended from the species indicated by the node within the square.

Ruminants are hoofed animals, including cattle and sheep, that have a unique four-chambered stomach specialized to digest tough, fiber-filled grasses. Researchers studying ruminants are investigating the morphological and molecular characteristics of different ruminant families in order to determine the evolutionary relationships among the families. Cladograms of several ruminant families were constructed based on morphological data (Figure 1A) and molecular data (Figure 1B). Table 1 shows a sample of the morphological characteristics present in each family used to construct the cladogram in Figure 1A.

Figure 1. Cladogram of six ruminant families based on (A) morphological data and (B) molecular data

TABLE 1. MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS FOUND IN EACH RUMINANT FAMILY

Describe how a scientist would use a comparison of the DNA sequences of different organisms to suggest the most likely evolutionary relationship among the organisms.

Based on Figure 1, explain why Bovidae is likely to be more closely related to Moschidae than it is to Giraffidae.

Using the template in the space provided for your response, represent the point(s) at which characteristic 1, listed in Table 1, evolved by marking "X" on the line(s) of the cladogram in the correct location(s).

Based on Figure 1A, explain why a characteristic found only in the Cervidae and Bovidae families is more likely evidence of convergent evolution than it is of common ancestry.

Discuss TWO prezygotic isolating mechanisms that prevent hybridization between two species. Include in your discussion an example of each mechanism. 

In 1981 a single immature male Geospiza conirostris finch flew more than 1000 kilometers from the Galåpagos island of Espanola to the Galåpagos island of Daphne Major, where no G. conirostris finches were living. The immigrant finch bred with a female G. fortis, a species of finch common on Daphne Major. The F₁ finches and later generations interbred only within their lineage. By 2012 scientists counted 23 individuals, including eight breeding pairs, within this hybrid lineage on Daphne Major. The hybrid lineage became known as Big Bird.

Birds with different beak shapes and sizes eat different of food. The dimensions of the Big Bird beaks relative to the beaks of the major competitor finch species on Daphne Major are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. The dimensions of the beaks of the Big Bird lineage and of its major competitor species in 2012 on Daphne Major. Each symbol represents the beak dimensions of a single bird.

The Big Bird lineage became reproductively isolated from G. fortis. Describe one prezygotic mechanism that likely contributed to the reproductive isolation of the Big Bird lineage from G. fortis.

Based on the data in figure 1, explain why the Big Bird population has been able to survive and reproduce on Daphne Major.

A virus infects and kills all G. magnirostris on Daphne Major but does not affect the other finch species.

Assuming food type and availability stay the same, predict the most likely change in the beak phenotype of the Big Bird population after six more generations.

Provide reasoning to justify your prediction in part (c).

Existing isolated brook trout populations in Newfoundland, Canada, were once part of a larger population that was fragmented at the end of the most recent glaciation period about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Researchers investigated 14 naturally separated stream populations of brook trout. They found that the populations are all genetically distinct and show differences in morphology.

Describe the prezygotic barrier that results in these genetically distinct populations.

Brook trout with longer fins are able to swim faster than brook trout with shorter fins. In one of the Newfoundland streams, the main prey of the brook trout evolved to move faster. For brook trout living in this stream, explain the difference in fitness between longer-finned individuals and shorter-finned individuals.

If two morphologically and behaviorally distinct populations of brook trout remain isolated for many generations, predict the likely impact on both populations.

Researchers claim that there are more genetic differences between any two current brook trout populations than there are between any single current population and the ancestral brook trout population from which all the trout are descended. Provide reasoning to justify their claim.