Content Analysis (AQA A Level Psychology)

Content analysis & coding

Content analysis

• Content analysis is a method used to analyse qualitative data by turning it into quantitative data

• A content analysis quantifies qualitative data through the use of coding

• A content analysis does not collect data directly, rather it uses pre-recorded examples of spoken interactions, the written word or media content e.g.

  • the transcript of a spoken conversation

  • a series of text messages sent between two people

  • the screenplay from a Hollywood film 

• The aim of content analysis is to summarise the main ideas presented in the spoken or written material via structured methods to conclude the data e.g.

  • the transcript of a spoken conversation covers an argument between a married couple in which the words 'blame' and 'upset' occur frequently

  • a series of text messages between two people provide the police with evidence of coercive control from one of the texters

  • the screenplay of a Hollywood film shows that the lead female character is referred to by her first name whereas the male character is referred to by his surname throughout the film

Coding

• Coding is a method of analysis used to convert qualitative, visual or auditory data into quantitative numerical data

• This is done by assigning each behaviour to a 'code' that can be analysed numerically

• The coding process is as follows:

  1. The researcher formulates their research question 

  2. They select a sample of preexisting qualitative data sources (some of which they may have conducted; some of which will have been conducted by other researchers)

  3. The researcher decides on the coding of the categories/coding units e.g. the use of the terms 'sweetie', 'honey', 'darling' throughout the material

  4. The researcher works through the data using a tally e.g. the term 'sweetie' is used 28 times in the script; 'honey' is used 45 times; 'darling' is used 23 times

  5. The researcher will then need to test for reliability via: 

     • Test-retest reliability: Run the content analysis again on the same sample (the material used first time round) and compare the results

     • Inter-rater reliability: A second rater conducts the content analysis with the same coding categories and data and compares them

     • If the results are similar then this shows good inter-rater reliability 

• Waynforth & Dunbar (1995) conducted a content analysis by analysing lonely heart adverts in newspapers to see if men and women were looking for different things in relationship

  • They looked at 881 lonely heart adverts 

  • They found that men aimed their adverts at younger women and tended to cite their resources as being more important than their attractiveness

  • Women aimed their adverts at older males and mentioned their attractiveness more than their resources

  • The researchers codified the above themes and gave them numerical values so that the qualitative responses were transformed into quantitative data

Evaluation of content analysis & coding

Strengths

• Content analysis is unusual in the world of psychological research in that it accesses and analyses both qualitative and quantitative data

  • The original qualitative data is rich in meaning and detail which brings with it external validity

  • The transformation of the qualitative data into quantitative data means that overall trends and patterns can emerge and are easily compared which brings with it reliability

• Content analysis enables researchers to investigate topics which might otherwise be off-limits due to ethical concerns

  • The material they access is in the public domain

  • There is no need to gain informed consent to access or report on the material

  • This means that researchers have freedom of choice as to what material they access and how much of it they choose to use

Limitations

• A content analysis uses material that has been produced outside of the research process e.g. a script, a blog, a conversation transcript from decades ago

  • This means that the research itself is separate from the immediacy of what took place during the production of the material

  • The researcher can only study the data, often without knowing the true context of its origin

  • This could result in the researcher making assumptions about what they are reading which would affect the validity of the findings

• Converting qualitative data into quantitative data means that the 'essence' of some of the original data is likely to be lost

  • A numerical value cannot adequately sum up the feelings and emotional content of the original qualitative data

  • This could affect the validity of the findings as the true meaning of the data may not be represented in the findings

Thematic analysis

• Thematic analysis is a method used to analyse qualitative data

• Thematic analysis is an inductive method

  • Themes emerge from the data, there is no hypothesis-testing involved

• It allows researchers to identify, analyse and report common/key themes from a set of data

• A theme is any feature of the data (e.g. an idea, a motif, a topic) which recurs throughout e.g.

  • the difficulty of saving enough to buy a house from interviews with people in their 20s

  • fear of crime expressed by older people

  • a series of news reports which presents drug addiction as a 'lifestyle choice'

• The researcher familiarises themselves with the data by reading it over and over again

• Themes within the data emerge i.e. patterns, repeated or common ideas or concepts

• The researcher reviews these themes and patterns to see if they can explain behaviour and answer the research question 

• The researcher then categorises and defines each theme e.g.

  • people in their 20s often refer to 'lack of savings', 'high rents' and 'lack of parental support' as obstacles to house-buying

  • fear of crime in older people can be further broken down into themes such as 'news reports stoking fear', 'young people as frightening', 'feelings of vulnerability'

• The researcher writes up the analysis into their formal report

Evaluation of thematic analysis

Strengths

• Thematic analysis is solely qualitative

  • It can provide insight into why, how and what people feel, think, experience

  • This means that it is high in ecological validity

• The researcher can quote directly from the original source material

  • This enables them to add context to their report, bringing real, subjective human experience to the forefront of their findings

Limitations

• Thematic analysis is extremely time-consuming

  • The text must be studied, analysed and reviewed repeatedly in order to identify and categorise the themes

  • This means that some researchers may decide not to use it as an analytical tool which in turn limits its usefulness

• The researcher may be prone to confirmation bias

  • Researchers may overlook themes which do not align with their preconceived ideas and focus only on those which support them