Syllabus Edition

First teaching 2017

Last exams 2026

Dispositional & Situational Explanations of Aggression in Prisons (AQA A Level Psychology): Revision Note

Exam code: 7182

Claire Neeson

Written by: Claire Neeson

Reviewed by: Lucy Vinson

Updated on

Dispositional explanations

  • A dispositional explanation of aggression is one which assumes that people are individuals with specific personality traits, likes/dislikes, skills, personal history, attitudes, beliefs, etc.

  • People do not neatly compartmentalise their behaviours to fit each specific situation; rather, they influence and act on social contexts according to their disposition

  • Offenders who are imprisoned enter prison with a distinct set of personality traits, just as they would any situation

  • This is explained by the importation model (Irwin & Cressey, 1962), i.e., offenders ‘import’ (bring in) their personality to the prison and engage in behaviours in line with their personality (including their past experiences)

  • The importation model assumes that if an individual enters a prison with a history of violent and abusive behaviour, then this will be seen in their behaviour inside the prison, i.e., they are simply adhering to what is for them a set of personal norms

Situational explanations

  • A situational explanation is one which assumes that the external environment plays a significant role in determining behaviour

  • Situational explanations draw from a person’s experience, culture, upbringing, education, lifestyle, etc.

  • A situational explanation of aggression in prisons uses the deprivation model (Sykes, 1958) to explain the effects of a harsh environment on aggressive behaviour

  • The deprivation model assumes that prisons are stressful environments in which bullying, abuse, depression, isolation and distance from loved-ones and material comforts all combine to promote aggression

  • Situational explanations have some relevance to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, i.e., it is frustrating to be obstructed from pursuing one’s daily activities, to be locked up for hours on end, to have to endure the company of others without any personal choice, to have no heterosexual contact in the matter and such frustrations may easily fuel aggressive behaviour

  • A key situational factor which contributes to aggressive behaviour in prisons is that of overcrowding, as this exacerbates the negative effects of prison life and may link to the idea of de-individuation as a factor in aggression (e.g. loss of self-awareness and identity in a crowd)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When you answer an exam question on dispositional/situational explanations, make sure that you make the link to aggression absolutely clear. You need to be explicit in making this link, as the examiner will be looking for evidence of you answering the question which is, of course, on the topic of aggression.

Research which investigates institutional aggression in the context of prisons

  • DeLisi et al. (2011) – from a sample of 2,520 male offenders, it was found that family background/upbringing was a strong influence on dispositional aggression and rule-breaking within the prison

  • Cao et al. (1997) - individual characteristics of offenders e.g. race and gender are critical factors in determining how each offender will respond to prison life which supports the importation model 

  • Cunningham et al. (2010) – 35 prison homicides in Texas could be explained via the deprivation model e.g. fights about possessions, homosexual relationships, drugs

  • Megargee (1977) – a longitudinal study conducted over three years which found that overcrowding was a key determinant of aggressive behaviour in male youth-offender institutions

Evaluation of institutional aggression in the context of prisons

Strengths

  • Both the importation and deprivation models have been supported by a body of research and by real-world examples of overcrowding in prisons leading to prison riots 

  • Both models have good application to possible interventions and therapies which could be used to make life less difficult for both prisoners and prison staff e.g. social skills training, anger management, more space per prisoner

Weaknesses

  • Neither theory really accounts for biological factors as an explanation of aggression in prisons, e.g., high levels of testosterone, cortisol and adrenaline

  • Some research has challenged the assumptions of the deprivation model; e.g., Hensley et al. (2002) found that when prisoners were allowed heterosexual intimacy with their partners on a prison visit, it did not result in a reduction in their aggressive behaviour

Issues & Debates

  • Most research into institutional aggression is gender biased, as it focuses on male prisoners

    • This may lead to beta bias — assuming findings apply equally to female inmates, despite potential differences in how aggression is expressed or experienced

    • For example, female prisoners may show less physical aggression and more relational or emotional responses, which these models often overlook

    • This lack of representation limits the universality and validity of both the importation and deprivation models

Worked Example

Here is an example of an AO3 question that you might be asked on this topic. 

AO3: You need to analyse and evaluate key concepts, ideas, theories and research.

Q. Outline one strength and one limitation of the situational explanation for institutional aggression.

[4 marks]

Model answer:

Outline the strength:

  • One strength of the situational explanation is that it has real-world application

Expand on this point:

Cunningham et al. (2010) found that prison aggression was often linked to deprivation (e.g., lack of autonomy), supporting the deprivation model and suggesting that improving prison conditions could reduce aggression.

Outline the limitation:

  • One limitation is that it may ignore dispositional factors

Expand on this point:

  • Not all prisoners react aggressively to the same environment, suggesting the situational explanation lacks universal explanatory power due to individual differences (e.g. personality traits or past experiences).

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Claire Neeson

Author: Claire Neeson

Expertise: Psychology Content Creator

Claire has been teaching for 34 years, in the UK and overseas. She has taught GCSE, A-level and IB Psychology which has been a lot of fun and extremely exhausting! Claire is now a freelance Psychology teacher and content creator, producing textbooks, revision notes and (hopefully) exciting and interactive teaching materials for use in the classroom and for exam prep. Her passion (apart from Psychology of course) is roller skating and when she is not working (or watching 'Coronation Street') she can be found busting some impressive moves on her local roller rink.

Lucy Vinson

Reviewer: Lucy Vinson

Expertise: Psychology Content Creator

Lucy has been a part of Save My Exams since 2024 and is responsible for all things Psychology & Social Science in her role as Subject Lead. Prior to this, Lucy taught for 5 years, including Computing (KS3), Geography (KS3 & GCSE) and Psychology A Level as a Subject Lead for 4 years. She loves teaching research methods and psychopathology. Outside of the classroom, she has provided pastoral support for hundreds of boarding students over a four year period as a boarding house tutor.