Urban Landscape (AQA A Level Geography)
Revision Note
Written by: Jacque Cartwright
Reviewed by: Bridgette Barrett
Spatial Patterns of Land Use
Land use can be considered the function of place; the main activities of urban areas
Can be industrial, financial, research and development, homes, or leisure
Cities can have more than one function
Most lucrative is tertiary and quaternary services
Typical land use within cities are:
Housing
Industry
Services
Transport
One feature of all urban areas is the spatial sorting of functions and people
Similar activities and types of people tend to cluster together to create a mosaic within the built-up area
The mosaic varies from settlement to settlement, over time and space
Urban models
Models to show how urban land is used, have been developed over the last 90 years
They try to describe and explain the patterns in a ‘typical’ urban region
They include social, economic, environmental and political factors
Burgess's concentric zone model 1925
One of the earliest theoretical models to explain urban social structures and based on the city of Chicago, USA
It suggests that as cities develop and grow, they move outwards in concentric zones
Business activity is within the CBD, as this has the most accessible the point
Next is the “zone of transition”, with older houses converted in light industry and flats
In-migrants tend to be drawn to this zone for its cheap housing
Housing improves with distance from the CBD, allowing movement away from the centre and pollution
High class residential housing is occupied by middle class with it newer and larger houses
Limitations of the Burgess model
The model does not take into account the physical landscape
This was based on Chicago, and yet the city is on the edge of the Great Lakes
Burgess did not consider the development of commuter towns
Urban regeneration, renewal and gentrification has changed inner city housing status
Model does not consider social/council housing
Decentralisation of shops and industry does not fit with the model
Fringe developments are not included
A simple model that explains basic urban growth
Hoyt's sector model 1939
Hoyt, a student of Burgess, stated that business activity is still within the CBD
Public transport routes terminated at or near the CBD, giving access for most people
Industry was noted to follow particular transport routes or corridors
High class residential areas often developed where there were distinct physical or social attractions (e.g. river)
Low class residential areas was therefore, confined to unfavourable locations (ugly, less transport links etc,)
Limitations to Hoyt's model
Based on Chicago and again makes little reference to the physical environment
No reference to out of town developments or commuter settlements
The growth of a sector can be limited as land use is in blocks (contained)
Some cities appear to follow this model as it looks at the effects of transport and communication routes
Multi-nuclei model 1945
Harris and Ullman argued that cities do not develop around a single centre but around important, multiple nuclei
CBD still exists but not always at the centre of the city
Low class residential housing tends to be in areas of cheaper land around industry (heavy or light)
High and middle class residents can afford to avoid living next to industrial areas; these areas are normally on a different side of the city to industry
There are areas of development outside of the main settlement around new nuclei like out of town shopping centres
The model is the first to take into consideration of the complexity of the city and its periphery
It considers that the CBD is not the only part of the city that affects land use
However, it is still a simplification of urban land use and the physical landscape is not fully considered
Bid rent theory
Bid rent theory shows how the price and demand on land changes as the distance towards the CBD increases
Different land users will compete with each other for land close to the city centre
Shops wish to maximise their profitability, so they pay more for land closer to the CBD and less for land further away from this area
This is based upon the idea that the more accessible an area, the more profitable it is going to be
The amount people are willing to pay is called Bid Rent
Limitations
Very simple, with only 3 broad zones
It assumes straight lines for cost curves and no scale
Too graphical, compared to map or plan
Doesn’t take into account transport networks, planning decisions or physical environment
Alonso identified that occasionally low income groups are found in the centre of a city, they were in high density cramped residential buildings as rents were high
Peak urban land surface value
This is a major factor in sorting land uses and people
Activities and groups differ in what they can afford
Urban land value tends to decline outwards from the core
But there are other factors too – geography of the place, flood plains, rivers, waterfronts
Historical factors
Economic factors
Social factors
Urban land managers – professionals who distribute and control resources – planners, governments, employers, developers, service providers
LDE land use
CBD in centre as normal
Industry starts in centre and develops out around transport and water routes
Zone of lower to middle income residence (also called zone of maturity) is where there is a mixture of old and newer housing occupied by middle classes
Colonial - high class (elite) residential often develops in a spine out from the city centre
Around the colonial is a wide range of housing but in the process of improvement e.g. government improvement projects
Zone of squatter settlements is often on the most undesirable land at the periphery of a city
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Remember:
Models try to explain differences in structure within cities
Each model has its limitations
If you study a city, you must avoid trying to fit it into one model - it probably fits into two or three - Tokyo
Each city is unique and will have its own structure and life
New Urban Landscapes
Modern urban areas have undergone changes to include a range of features
These include:
Mixed-use developments in town centres
Fortress developments
Edge cities
Gentrified areas
Cultural and heritage quarters
Table of Urban Features
Feature | Characteristics | Examples |
|---|---|---|
Mixed-use Developments | Residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, entertainment and leisure uses are blended/interconnected, safely and easily accessed by people Developments are planned by local councils, usually with private investment Aim is to attract people back to city centres through opportunities to work, live and relax in one place | BedZed, Hackbridge, London Trinity Square, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear |
Fortress Developments | Gated and guarded communities of 'safe' living space and/or retail use Often located in suburban regions of large cities with limited access Deliberately designed around security, protection, surveillance and exclusion Divisive and promotes social segregation as costs involved means only higher socio-economic groups can afford to live in or use them | Common in EMEs such as Brazil, China and South Africa USA has numerous sites in major cities - Hollywood, LA and along the Mexico Texan border etc. London has begun to build gated, monitored communities - Kensington Gardens |
Edge Cities | Self-contained areas of offices, retail and leisure centres, close to major transport links on the outskirts of city centres Land is cheaper and have planned housing estates - usually with commuter routes into city centres Majority of edge cites developed due to decentralisation and suburbanisation and the rise of car ownership | Most common in USA - Detroit, Dallas Croydon, UK |
Gentrified Areas | Unplanned inner-city regeneration, where wealthier people move into run-down, cheaper inner city streets and improve it, one house at a time It is an affordable route onto the property ladder This has a multiplier effect - property prices increase and attract other people into the area, this feeds into gaining local service upgrades until the area has improved physically Established residents are usually excluded or displaced as the cost of living increases leading to social and ethnic segregation | Jericho, Oxford Tower Hamlets, London Fishponds, Bristol |
Cultural and Heritage Quarters | These are planned areas focused on the history or character of a city Aim is to encourage growth and revitalise the local economy in the arts and creative industries Often developed by local councils and regenerate former industrial areas | Liverpool World Heritage Birmingham Jewellery Quarter Bristol Harbourside Swansea Bay |
Worked Example
Select the correct pair of consequences that result from the development of edge cities.
[1 mark]
A | Gentrification of inner-city areas | Social segregation |
B | Loss of rural habitats | Increased photo-chemical pollution |
C | Deindustrialisation | Gentrification of inner-city areas |
D | Loss of rural habitats | Social segregation |
Note that the question asks about the consequences of (the result of), not the cause of building edge cities
Answer:
D [1]
With the development of edge cities there is a loss of rural habitats because land is built on and edge cities are on the outskirts of cities
There is an increase in social segregation because in HDEs, whilst land is cheaper with distance, the value and desirability of housing becomes more expensive, excluding those in lower pay bands, but also increasing the need for private transport due to the distance outside the core of the city
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