Impacts and Responses to Storm Hazards (AQA A Level Geography)
Revision Note
Written by: Rhiannon Molyneux
Reviewed by: Bridgette Barrett
Impacts of Storm Hazards
Primary & Secondary Effects
Primary effects are the immediate impacts of strong winds, high rainfall and storm surges
Secondary effects are the impacts that occur later on after the storm has passed
The Primary and Secondary Impacts of Tropical Storms
| Primary impacts | Secondary impacts |
|---|---|---|
Social | Deaths and injuries Displacement of people Damage to properties and infrastructure causing disruption to people’s lives
| Mental health issues e.g. stress, anxiety, depression Homelessness Disruption to services such as healthcare and education Loss of cultural heritage sites |
Economic | Destruction of property and infrastructure leading to significant costs for repair and reconstruction Disruption of trade and economic activity Loss of income and employment Costs of immediate responses e.g. food aid, temporary shelter, medical treatment | Slower economic growth and development Increased economic inequality as impacts are more severe for most vulnerable people Increased costs of insurance and hazard management strategies |
Environmental | Poor water quality due to pollution Loss of biodiversity as freshwater habitats are inundated with salt water Destruction of habitats and ecosystems e.g salt marshes, sand dunes, mangrove forests and coral reefs
| Soil erosion and land degradation leads to decreased soil fertility which can lead to a loss of productivity of crops Loss of habitat and biodiversity can affect other species such as migratory birds Loss of coral reefs, sand dunes, mangrove forests and salt marshes can leave coastline more exposed to erosion and flooding in the long-term |
Political | Pressure on governments to co-ordinate emergency response Social unrest and political instability | Conflicts over government response and food shortage Changes in government policy and regulations to reduce future risk |
Responding to Storm Hazards
Short-term responses are:
When a tropical storm is forecast (predicted) to hit an area
As the tropical storm is happening
Immediately after the tropical storm has passed
Long-term responses are:
Restoring an area to past conditions
Reducing the impact of future storms
The Short-term and Long-term Responses to Tropical Storms
Short-term Responses | Long-term Responses |
|---|---|
Evacuation of people before the tropical storm arrives | Improve long-term forecasting techniques to give people more time to evacuate in the future |
Rescue people before the storm cuts people off from flooding and treat injured people | Provide aid, grants or subsidies to residents to repair and strengthen their properties |
Recover any dead bodies to reduce and prevent water and air borne diseases | Repair and improve flood defences - flood gates, levees etc. |
Set up temporary shelters for the homeless and post notices where they are being housed for missing family members | Repair homes or rehouse people who have lost their homes or been damaged |
Provide temporary supplies of power, food and water and restore communication systems as soon as possible | Repair, replace and improve infrastructure |
Overseas aid may be sent in the form of workers, supplies, equipment or financial donations | Improve building regulations so that more buildings withstand the impacts of tropical storms or change planning rules to restrict homes being built in risk areas |
Tech companies encouraged to set up disaster response tools to let people confirm their safety, report damaged areas and alert about risk areas | Encourage economic recovery in the area and encourage people to return with incentives or tax breaks |
Preparedness and adaptation
Preparedness and adaptation include making people more aware of hazards and taking action to minimise risk
For example:
Governments can plan evacuation routes to get people away from storms quickly and safely
Monitoring systems can be installed to track tropical storms and issue warnings, allowing time to prepare and evacuate
People can be encouraged to stock up on food and water as they may not be able to leave their home for several days following a storm
Training and education on the impacts of tropical storms along with information leaflets on what to do in the event, reduces injuries
Boarding up windows, reinforcing doors etc, helps to reduce flying debris
Emergency services can train and prepare for disasters through practising at regular intervals
Early warning systems can be used to reduce the number of people killed - Bangladesh has a loudspeaker system in villages and designated emergency shelters on high ground or stilts to stop flood waters from entering the building
Prevention and mitigation
Preventing tropical storms is not possible, but land use zoning can help to reduce the impacts of tropical storms by limiting development in high-risk areas
After Hurricane Sandy hit New York in 2012, new zoning regulations were established to ensure that new buildings were elevated above the floodplain, or designed to withstand flooding
Mitigation can involve strengthening buildings so they are less likely to be destroyed, meaning that less people will die from collapsing buildings and falling debris
Buildings can be designed to withstand tropical storms:
Building on stilts to avoid flood waters
Building with reinforced concrete
Fixed roofs rather than tiles
Protection can be expensive to put in place, but will save money in the long-term as there is less need for rebuilding
Defences such as sea walls and levees can be built along the coast to prevent damage from storm surges
e.g. After Hurricane Katrina struck the USA in 2005, $14 was spent on levees and other flood protection measures
Restoring natural ecosystems such as mangrove forest can help to reduce the impacts of tropical storms as they absorb and dissipate wave energy and storm surges
Case Study - Super Typhoon Haiyan 2013, Philippines
Background
Typhoon Haiyan (locally called Yolanda) was one of the strongest ever-recorded tropical storm to hit the Philippines
It made landfall on the 8th of November 2013 as a Category 5, with sustained winds of over 195 mph (315 km/hr)
The Philippines are a series of islands located in the South China Sea, east of Vietnam and north of Indonesia
The islands regularly suffer from typhoons that sweep in from the southwest every year during the tropical storm season
The islands sit in an area of usually warm ocean water, however, at time of storm, the sea temperature was 30°C
Sea level rise (20cm increase around the world since 1900) is a factor as higher seas are known to contribute to greater storm surges
Abstracting too much groundwater has caused subsidence in some parts of the country
Tacloban stands at the end of a bay that is funnel shaped and this squeezes water into destructive storm surges
Typhoon Haiyan's Characteristics
Lowest pressure | 895 mb |
Peak strength | Category 5 |
Strength at landfall | Category 5 with 195 mph winds |
Highest sustained wind speed | 196 mph |
Radius of typhoon strength winds | 53 miles |
Rainfall | 400 mm |
Storm surge height | 15 m |
Primary and Secondary Impacts of Typhoon Haiyan
Impacts | Primary impacts | Secondary impacts |
|---|---|---|
Social | 6201 people died 1.1 million homes lost More than 4 million displaced Casualties 28,626 from lack of aid 16 million people affected UN admitted its response was too slow, amid reports of hunger/thirst among survivors | UN feared possibility of the spread of disease, lack of food, water, shelter and medication There was an influx of refugees into less affected areas Two months later, 21,000 families were still in 380 evacuation centres, waiting to be rehoused by the government in bunkhouses that needed to be built |
Economic | Damage estimated at $13 billion Major sugar/rice producing areas were destroyed Between 50,000 and 120,000 tons of sugar was lost Over 130,000 tonnes of rice were lost Government estimated that 175,000 acres of farmland was damaged (worth $85 million) | Tacloban city was decimated Debt is a major obstacle for the Philippines, the country is locked in a debt cycle, with more than 20% of government revenue spent on foreign debt repayments |
Environmental | Loss of forests/trees, and widespread flooding Oil and sewage leaks into local ecosystems Lack of sanitation in days following lead to a higher level of pollution Coconut plantations were said to be 'completely flattened' (coconut equated to nearly half of the Philippines agricultural exports / is the world's biggest producer of coconut oil Fishing communities were severely affected | An estimated 90 per cent of the rural population in typhoon-affected areas are small-scale farmers With 33 million coconut trees felled, international help was sought to mill the 15 million tons of timber, Without a crop, families would not have cash to enable local markets to function |
Political | President Aquino asked for international help the next day Government was under growing pressure to speed up the distribution of emergency aid Government was accused of being unprepared and there were widespread protests | Increased government spending and new policies to improve disaster preparedness and response $3 billion allocated for rehabilitation and reconstruction of affected areas |
The Short-term and Long-Term Responses to Typhoon Haiyan
Short-term Response | Long-term Response |
|---|---|
The Philippines declared 'a state of national calamity’ and asked for international the next day International aid agencies responded quickly with food, water and temporary shelters The Philippines Red Cross delivered basic food aid e.g. rice & canned food UK sent shelter kits to provide emergency shelter for a family Over 1200 evacuation centres set up for the homeless The French, Belgian and Israelis set up field hospitals to help the injured $475 million sent as aid and US sent 13,000 soldiers | The UN donated financial aid, supplies and medical support 5 days went by before any aid was received and only 20% of victims received aid UN admitted its response was too slow Rebuilding of the airport, ports, roads and bridges 'Cash for Work' schemes gave locals money to help clear the debris Oxfam helped finance replacement of the fishing boats Increased number of cyclone shelters have been built further away from coastal areas |
Case Study – Hurricane Harvey, USA
Background
Hurricane Harvey was one of the most destructive hurricanes to hit the USA in recent history
It made landfall in Texas on the 25th of August 2017 as a Category 4 hurricane, with sustained winds of over 130 mph (210 km/hr)
It weakened to a tropical storm, but continued to move slowly across Texas for several days bringing huge amounts of rainfall
It then moved back over the Gulf of Mexico and re-intensified before making a second landfall in Louisiana on the 30th of August
The slow movement of the storm and its high moisture content led to devastating flooding
It was the wettest hurricane ever to hit the USA
Hurricane Harvey’s Characteristics
Lowest pressure | 937 mb |
Peak strength | Category 4 |
Strength at landfall | Category 4 with 130 mph winds |
Highest sustained wind speed | 130 mph |
Rainfall | 1000+ mm |
Storm surge height | 3.7 m |
Highest recorded rainfall | 1600mm recorded in Nederland, Houston |
Primary and Secondary Impacts of Hurricane Harvey
Impacts | Primary impacts | Secondary impacts |
|---|---|---|
Social | 107 people died More than 200,000 homes were damaged or destroyed 30,000 people were displaced 13 million people affected Water treatment facilities were damaged leading to water shortages and boil-water advisories | The psychological impact was significant with almost 50% of people experiencing trauma, stress or anxiety Many people were displaced for extended periods of time of 6 months to two years People of colour and poorer communities were particularly badly affected and experienced longer recovery times |
Economic | Estimated $125 billion in damages 300,000 buildings damaged or destroyed Disruptions to the energy industry, with an estimated 20% of US refining capacity impacted by the storm Many businesses were forced to shut down or suspend operations | Approximately 30,000 jobs were lost Supply chain disruptions had a knock-on effect across many industries e.g. manufacturing and construction Costs of basic necessities increased Insurance costs for property owners in affected areas increased |
Environmental | Strong winds damaged trees and other vegetation Widespread flooding caused pollution and water contamination Air pollution from chemical plants and industrial facilities Significant erosion altered the shape of beaches and estuaries Several oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico threatened the marine ecosystem | Damage to biodiversity and habitat destruction had a long-term impact on ecosystems Soil contamination had long-term effects on agriculture and ecosystem health Air pollution contributed to long-term respiratory problems and other health issues Oil spills and water pollution had a long-term impact on the health of marine ecosystems |
Political | $15 billion was approved in emergency funding for the relief and recovery efforts A huge emergency response was launched to provide shelter and resources involving over 50,000 emergency staff A curfew was imposed to prevent looting of abandoned properties The government was criticised for its handling of the crisis | The Houston Rising Coalition was set up to promote social, racial, economic and environmental justice in the aftermath of the hurricane due to the disproportionate effects on people of colour and low-income communities Funding was allocated for long-term infrastructure projects to mitigate the impact of future disasters |
The Short-term and Long-Term Responses to Hurricane Harvey
Short-term Response | Long-term Response |
|---|---|
Warnings were issued and compulsory evacuations were ordered Evacuation and rescue teams were mobilised including over 12,000 military personnel Millions of sandbags were made available and non-essential services were closed Flood managers authorised the controlled release of water from reservoirs to try to reduce flooding Curfews were imposed to maintain order and prevent looting and other criminal activities The American Red Cross established over 200 shelters in Texas for people displaced by the storm Financial assistance was provided to over 800,000 people by FEMA (the Federal Emergency Management Agency) Electricity was restored to over 1.5 million customers in the days following the storm | Rebuilding of infrastructure such as roads and bridges Financial assistance was provided to help homeowners repair or rebuild their homes The Rebuild Texas Fund raised over $100 million to support the recovery of small businesses The government provided over $1 billion in disaster recovery loans to support economic recovery Over $5 billion was allocated to flood control projects in Texas to try to reduce future risk of flooding Funding was allocated to mental health services to provide support to people affected by the disaster Funding was provided for environmental restoration to restore habitats and ecosystems |
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