Increasing & Managing Energy Supplies (AQA A Level Geography)
Revision Note
Written by: Robin Martin-Jenkins
Reviewed by: Bridgette Barrett
Oil & Gas Exploration
Oil and gas exploration
There are various strategies governments and TNCs can use to increase the supply of oil and gas
Existing reserves can be further developed to extract greater quantities of fuel
Most of these techniques have significant environmental impacts
New technology can be used to extract more oil from conventional sources
E.g. enhanced oil recovery techniques to separate and extract more oil from existing fields
Thermal recovery - heating oil underground reducing its viscosity
Chemical recovery - chemicals injected
Biological recovery - Microbes injected
Techniques developed to drill in more extreme environments
E.g. deep water rigs
New unconventional sources of oil and gas can be explored and opened up
Bitumen containing tar sands can be processed to extract crude oil
Huge reserves discovered in northern Alberta, Canada
Very large, open-cast mines dug from ancient forests
A very water-intensive process
Contaminated water stored in ponds
Five times more CO2 emitted than in conventional oil extraction
Expensive, so only cost-effective when oil prices are high
Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) of shale rock can release oil and gas
E.g. Over 40% of USA's dry natural gas is shale gas
Sand, chemicals and water are pumped into shale rocks at high pressure
This breaks the rock and releases the gas or oil
Can contaminate local groundwater with methane and chemicals
Small earthquakes and ground subsidence can occur
The Nuclear Debate
The nuclear debate
Nuclear energy plays a increasing role in the energy mixes of some HICs
E.g. France gets 68% of its energy from nuclear
It now provides about 10% of the world's electricity
It is the world's second largest source of low-carbon power (26% of the total in 2020)
There are 439 active nuclear reactors across the world
Most of these are in just five countries:
USA (93)
France (56)
China (55)
Russia (37)
Japan (33)
It is one of the most efficient forms of generating clean electricity but is controversial due to nuclear accidents and the problem of waste disposal
Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy
Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|
A relatively clean process producing no greenhouse gas emissions Reduces reliance on fossil fuels and contributes towards COP climate change targets Has saved an estimated 1.8 million deaths from impacts of fossil-fuel based climate change Large output of energy compared to fuel input Small amounts of uranium needed, and large reserves are available It is not bulky so is easier to transport than fossil fuels Increases energy security Promotes the research and development of new technologies | Nuclear waste is radioactive and expensive to dispose of Waste has to be stored underground Storage sites are hard to find - they to need stable geology and to be away from groundwater Power stations are expensive to build and maintain Risk of nuclear accidents Possible health impacts in the areas around nuclear power stations Cost of decommissioning (shutting down) is very high Due to the prohibitive costs it would take most countries more than 40 years to convert most of their fossil fuel schemes to nuclear Power stations often located on coast for easy access to cooling water - this leaves them vulnerable to sea level rise Risk of use of nuclear proliferation and sabotage by terrorists countries wanting to threaten regional peace |
There have been several accidents at nuclear plants which have released dangerous radioactive waste, which have included:
Three Mile Island in the USA in 1979
Partial meltdown of the nuclear reactor
Slight increase in cancer rates in the area affected by the release of radioactive contamination
Chernobyl (now in Ukraine at the time part of the USSR) was the site of a reactor explosion in 1986
50 direct deaths (UN estimate)
Estimated 4000 people have or will die as a result of exposure to radioactive materials
Radioactive fallout entered the atmosphere and fell over a large area including Scandinavia and the UK
Fukushima nuclear reactor failed in Japan in 2011
The tsunami which resulted from a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in 2011 flooded parts of the power station causing loss of power which meant they lost the ability to cool the reactor
This led to explosions, meltdown of the reactor and the release of radioactive contamination
154,000 people evacuated
There has been an increase in thyroid cancers in the area since 2011 but this may be that more are being detected due to the screening program established after the event
Before 2011 nuclear energy supplied 30% of Japan’s electricity
Confidence in nuclear power plummeted following the accident,
46 of the 50 operational power reactors were suspended
In 2019 just 7.5% of Japan’s electricity was coming from nuclear
Japan has climate change target of becoming carbon neutral by 2050
New research into safety and reactor design and performance have somewhat rebuilt confidence in the nuclear sector
New targets for nuclear power generation to account for 20-22% of Japan’s electricity supply in 2030
Renewable Supplies
Development of renewable sources
Huge concerns remain about the environmental, social and economic impacts of climate change and the enhanced greenhouse effect
Development of renewable energy sources are key to countries meeting their carbon reduction targets
Two key advantages of renewable sources are:
no greenhouse gas emissions are emitted
The source is usually non-finite
There are various other advantages and disadvantages of each renewable source
Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energy
Renewable energy source | Advantages | Disadvantages | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
Wind | No air pollution Can be small or large scale Can be on land or offshore Cheap to run, especially onshore Offshore farms are more efficient and have smaller visual impact | Can be tricky to find sites with suitable wind speeds - needs to be be above 5 metres per second to turn turbines Transporting resulting electricity can be expensive Offshore wind farms are expensive to build and maintain - twice the cost of onshore Many turbines (233) are needed to produce the same energy as an average coal fired power station May affect bird migration patterns or kill birds who fly into the moving blades Noise and visual pollution | Tamil Nadu, India, has 3600 wind turbines - a third of India’s total wind turbines The UK’s onshore/offshore wind energy industry is becoming one of the largest in the world Rampion wind farm built off the coast of Brighton, south east UK, in 2017, has 116 turbines with capacity to supply electricity to 350,000 homes It cost £1.3 billion but is estimated to displace 600,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions annually, compared to conventional fossil fuel-based electricity generation |
Solar | No air pollution Can be small or large scale Can be used in most locations Can be incorporated into building design and mixed land use schemes Technology is improving and reducing cost of solar panels | Expensive to install Depends on reliable amount of sunshine hours Large numbers needed to produce energy Can use large areas of land Visual impact on landscape | Even with the UK’s climate, solar is a viable renewable option In 2021 the installed solar energy capacity in the UK was around 14 gigawatts, enough to power between 10.5 million and 14 million homes Germany is a global leader in solar energy. In 2021 solar sources accounted for 10% of the country's total electricity consumption The potential for solar energy in the southern US is leading to fast expansion |
HEP | Controls flooding downstream Often in sparsely populated areas May provide water storage for irrigation and domestic use Reservoirs created can be used for tourism - e.g. for water sports and fishing Dams height can be raised to avoid having to build more | Large areas of land are flooded behind the dam Flooded vegetation switches to anaerobic respiration which releases methane Dam traps sediment which can affect ecosystems downstream Visual pollution in otherwise picturesque locations Can prevent fish movement upstream People and settlements may have to be relocated Expensive to build and maintain | In 2020, HEP was the third largest source of energy after coal and natural gas, supplying 17% of global electricity generation More than 60% of Switzerland’s electricity was generated by HEP in 2021 The largest HEP scheme in the world is the Three Gorges Dam in Hubei, China |
Tidal | No air pollution Has the potential to produce large amounts of energy Reliable as tides are predictable | Challenging marine environments make barrages expensive to build and maintain - may require government subsidies to make viable Barrages may affect intertidal ecosystems and shipping Few suitable sites although technology still in early stages of development | The UK’s tidal power resource is estimated to be more than 10 gigawatts (GW), about 50% of Europe’s tidal energy capacity There are no operational tidal power barrages in the UK yet but several have been proposed, for e.g in the Pentland Firth, near the Orkney Islands, Scotland. It is known for its strong tidal currents of up to 16 knots |
Geothermal | Can produce large amounts of energy Consistent and reliable source of electricity, known as baseload power. Geothermal plants can operate continuously, providing a stable power supply without the intermittency issues faced by renewable sources like solar or wind energy | May only be feasible in specific geographic regions that have accessible geothermal reservoirs on tectonic plate boundaries or hotspots. High Initial Costs due to drilling and exploration costs associated with identifying suitable reservoirs Geological uncertainty and risk of encountering dry or low-temperature wells during exploration Some small environmental issues: e.g. release of geothermal fluids can impact local ecosystems if not managed properly | 26% of Iceland's primary energy supply comes from geothermal energy The largest geothermal energy scheme in the world is the Geysers Geothermal Complex in California, US |
Biofuels | Biofuels are derived from organic matter, such as crops, agricultural residues, or waste biomass, so are renewable if replenished through sustainable agricultural practices Carbon released during combustion is roughly equivalent to the carbon absorbed by the plants during their growth Can be produced domestically reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels | Competition between biofuel crops and land that could be used for food production - may contribute to food price increases Conversion of natural habitats and forests into agricultural land, leading to the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services Processing of biofuels is energy-intensive - can offset the environmental benefits of biofuels, particularly if fossil fuels are used extensively during the process (e.g. for harvesting and transport) | The Sleaford Renewable Energy Plant in Lincolnshire, UK, opened in 2014 Sleaford generates enough electricity to power 65,000 homes by boiling waste straw, which is delivered by 240 lorries each week |
Other trends in in the development of renewable energy sources include:
Expansion of the renewable energy sector to meet carbon reduction targets from COP summits
Lowering of costs as economies of scale kick in
This is making it a more attractive option for the world’s biggest EMEs, China and India
Particularly solar and wind technology
Energy Management
Energy management
As well as increasing the supply of energy, consumption can also be managed to reduce the demand
There are different strategies governments use to target businesses and individuals
Government Strategies to Manage Energy Consumption
Strategy | Explanation | Examples |
|---|---|---|
Encouraging competition | Simulating competition between energy providers to make it easier for customers to switch supplier Providers work harder to keep customers by making savings and passing on reduced prices | Six big companies dominate the energy supply market in the UK and customers traditionally are slow to swap Since 2015 the UK government has increased competition in the market by allowing customers easy access to tariff-compare websites and making the process of switching supplier much quicker |
Subsidies | Money and grants available to energy users to improve the buildings they use to make them more energy efficient | Building improvements include installing roof and cavity wall insulation, draught excluders, more efficient boilers and double glazing to windows The UK government is investing £12 billion in ‘Help to Heat’ schemes including a boiler upgrade grant to property owners to install low carbon heating systems such as heat pumps |
Monitoring | Smart metres installed in homes and offices allow people to be more aware of how much energy they are using Having more awareness leads to energy conservation to save money on bills | The UK government has set out a goal for energy suppliers to install smart meters in every home and small business by 2025 |
Carbon cap and trade schemes | The amount of carbon emissions from businesses and industries can be capped and fines issued for exceeding these targets Consumers can buy, sell, or trade allowances amongst themselves - if they emit fewer emissions than their allocated allowances, they can sell the surplus to other participants Industry and business owners will look to avoid fines and make trades by using less energy or implementing more energy-efficient systems Over time, the overall emissions cap is typically reduced, leading to a gradual decrease in the total number of allowances available. This creates a scarcity of allowances, driving up their price and encouraging further emissions reductions and investments in cleaner technologies | One example of a carbon cap scheme in the UK is the Carbon Price Floor (CPF) which was implemented in 2013. The CPF sets a price on each tonne of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted by electricity providers to businesses, effectively placing a climate change carbon tax on them The UK left the EU’s cap and trade scheme in 2021 and has set up its own emissions trading scheme for the power generation, aviation and other energy intensive industries |
As well as targeting households and industries, government strategies also target the transport sector
Campaigns to encourage taking public transport/cycling/walking/car sharing
Grants for hybrid or electric cars
Toll roads
Park and ride schemes in cities combined with high car park charges in city centres
Congestion charges (for example, London Congestion Charge Zone)
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