Bonding & Structure (CIE A Level Chemistry)

• Different types of structure and bonding have different effects on the physical properties of substances such as their melting and boiling points, electrical conductivity and solubility

Ionic bonding & giant ionic lattice structures

• Ionic compounds are strong
  • The strong electrostatic forces in ionic compounds keep the ions strongly together

• They are brittle as ionic crystals can split apart
• Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points
  • The strong electrostatic forces between the ions in the lattice act in all directions and keep them strongly together
  • Melting and boiling points increase with charge density of the ions due to the greater electrostatic attraction of charges
  • Mg²⁺O^2- has a higher melting point Na⁺Cl^-

• Ionic compounds are soluble in water as they can form ion - dipole bonds
• Ionic compounds only conduct electricity when molten or in solution
  • When molten or in solution, the ions can freely move around and conduct electricity
  • In the solid state they’re in a fixed position and unable to move around

Metallic bonding & giant metallic lattice structures

• Metallic compounds are malleable
  • When a force is applied, the metal layers can slide
  • The attractive forces between the metal ions and electrons act in all directions
  • So when the layers slide, the metallic bonds are re-formed
  • The lattice is not broken and has changed shape

• Metallic compounds are strong and hard
  • Due to the strong attractive forces between the metal ions and delocalised electrons

• Metals have high melting and boiling points
  • Due to the strong attractive forces between the metal ions and delocalised electrons
  • The greater the number of delocalised electrons and the smaller the cation, the greater the attractive force between them resulting in a higher melting / boiling point
• Pure metals are insoluble in water
• Metals can conduct electricity when in a solid or liquid state
  • As both in the solid and liquid state, there are mobile electrons which can freely move around and conduct electricity

Explaining the malleability of metals

Metals are malleable as the layers can slide over each and reform

Covalent bonding & simple covalent lattice structures

• Simple covalent lattices have low melting and boiling points
  • These compounds have weak intermolecular forces between the molecules
  • Only little energy is required to break the lattice

• Most compounds are insoluble with water
  • Unless they are polar (such as HCl) or can form hydrogen bonds (such as NH₃)

• They do not conduct electricity in the solid or liquid state as there are no charged particles
  • Some simple covalent compounds conduct electricity in solution such as HCl which forms H⁺ and Cl^- ions

Covalent bonding & giant covalent lattice structures

• Giant covalent lattices have high melting and boiling points
  • These compounds have a large number of covalent bonds linking the whole structure and intermolecular forces between the molecules
  • A lot of energy is required to break the lattice

• The compounds can be hard or soft
  • Graphite is soft as the forces between the carbon layers are weak
  • Diamond and silicon(IV) oxide are hard as it is difficult to break their 3D network of strong covalent bonds

• Most compounds are insoluble in water
• Most compounds do not conduct electricity however some do
  • Graphite has delocalised electrons between the carbon layers which can move along the layers when a voltage is applied
  • Diamond and silicon(IV) oxide do not conduct electricity as all four outer electrons on every carbon atom are involved in a covalent bond so there are no free electrons available

Characteristics of different compound structure types table