Non-specific Immune Responses
- Vertebrate animals have developed complex mechanisms to defend themselves against the invasion of pathogens
- The different methods of defence can be divided into four categories:
- Physical: body tissues act as barriers, preventing the entry of pathogens
- E.g. skin, mucous membrane of the alimentary canal
- Cellular: cells detect and signal the presence of pathogens. Protective substances are secreted and the pathogens are ingested and digested
- Chemical: secreted substances generate an inhospitable environment for the growth of pathogens. These substances can trap pathogens, cause them to burst, or prevent them from entering cells and reproducing
- Commensal organisms: the harmless bacteria and fungi present on and in the body compete with pathogens for nutrients
- Physical: body tissues act as barriers, preventing the entry of pathogens
First line of defence
- A human has three lines of defence
- The first line of defence prevents the entry of pathogens and is comprised of the following:
- Skin
- Mucous membranes
- Expulsive reflexes
- Chemical secretions
Skin
- Skin posses an outer layer of dry, dead, hardened cells filled with keratin
- Keratin is a tough fibrous protein
- This layer of cells acts as a physical barrier to pathogens
- There are secretions of sebum that contain fatty acids which have antimicrobial properties
- Evaporation of sweat from the skin leaves behind a salt residue
- The lack of moisture, low pH and high salinity creates an inhospitable environment for the growth of microorganisms
Mucous membranes
- Mucous membranes line the gut, airways and reproductive system
- The mucous membrane consists of epithelial cells and mucus-secreting cells like goblet cells
- Mucus contains lots of glycoproteins with long carbohydrate chains. These chains are what make mucus sticky
- Viruses, bacteria, pollen and dust float about in the air that we breathe in
- Mucus in the airways (trachea, bronchi and bronchioles) can trap these particles
- The particles are then moved towards the back of the throat by cilia
- Cilia are small hair-like structures on the surface of cells. Some ciliated epithelial cells have motile cilia that beat and move in a wave-like manner to move mucus along the airway
Expulsive reflexes
- When a pathogen irritates the lining of an airway it can trigger an expulsive reflex; a cough or sneeze
- Both a cough and sneeze result in a sudden expulsion of air. This expelled air contains secretions from the respiratory tract along with the foreign particles that have entered
Chemical secretions
- Lysozymes are antimicrobial enzymes that breakdown the cell wall of bacteria
- These special enzymes are found in body fluids such as blood, tears, sweat, and breast milk
- Hydrochloric acid is produced by the cells that line the stomach
- The acid creates a low pH inside the stomach which helps to kill any bacteria that has been ingested alongside food
- The cells of the gut secrete mucus to prevent being damaged by hydrochloric acid
Commensal microorganisms
- On average roughly 1kg of a human's weight is made up of the bacteria on or inside their body
- Candida albicans and E. coli are examples of bacteria commonly found on and in humans
- These microorganisms grow on the skin, in the mouth and intestines however they do not cause disease
- Their growth is limited by the defence mechanisms
- Hosting these microorganisms can have a major benefit for humans
- They compete with pathogenic microorganisms and prevent them from invading host tissue
- Antibiotics often kill friendly gut bacteria which can allow for opportunistic pathogens to grow
Second line of defence
- When a pathogen manages to evade the first line of defence then the second line of defence will respond
- The second line of defence involves phagocytic cells and antimicrobial proteins responding to the invading pathogens
- Second-line responses include:
- Blood clotting
- Inflammation
- Wound repair
- Phagocytosis
Blood clotting
- When the body is wounded it responds rapidly
- A break in the mucous membranes or skin membranes causes the release of molecules that trigger a chemical cascade which results in blood clotting
- Platelets release substances that undergo a series of chemical reactions
- The end product is that fibrin is formed, which forms a network, trapping platelets and forming a clot
- Blood clotting prevents excess blood loss, the entry of pathogens and provides a barrier (scab) for wound healing to occur
The blood clotting cascade
Examiner Tip
You don't need to know all of the steps involved in the blood-clotting cascade for your exam! They key information to remember is that platelets trigger a chemical reaction cascade that results in the formation of fibrin, which forms a scab.
Inflammation
- The surrounding area of a wound can sometimes become swollen, warm and painful to touch; this is described as inflammation
- Inflammation is a local response to infection and tissue damage. It occurs via chemical signalling molecules which cause the migration of phagocytes into the tissue and increased blood flow
- Body cells called mast cells respond to tissue damage by secreting the cell signalling molecule, histamine
- Histamine stimulates the following responses:
- Vasodilation increases blood flow through capillaries
- "Leaky" capillaries allow fluid to enter the tissues and creating swelling
- A portion of the plasma proteins leave the blood
- Phagocytes leave the blood and enter the tissue to engulf foreign particles
- Cells release cytokines that trigger an immune response in the infected area
- Cytokines are cell-signalling compounds that stimulate inflammation and an immune response
- They are small proteins molecules
- Interleukins are a group of cytokines
- Interleukin 1 (IL-1) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) promote inflammation
- IL-1 targets the brain, causing drowsiness and fever
Wound repair
- A scab is formed as a result of blood clotting
- Underneath this scab, there are stem cells that divide by mitosis to heal the wound
- Wound healing occurs in a number of overlapping stages:
- New blood vessels form
- Collagen is produced
- Granulation tissue forms to fill the wound
- Stem cells move over the new tissue and divide to produce epithelial cells
- Contractile cells cause wound contraction
- Unwanted cells die
The process of wound repair involving the formation of granulation tissue
- All of the above are examples of non-specific immune responses
- Non-specific defences are present in humans from birth. The rapid response is the same for every pathogen; they do not distinguish between pathogens
- They are not always effective