Non-specific Immune Responses (OCR A Level Biology)

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Non-specific Immune Responses

  • Vertebrate animals have developed complex mechanisms to defend themselves against the invasion of pathogens
  • The different methods of defence can be divided into four categories:
    • Physical: body tissues act as barriers, preventing the entry of pathogens
      • E.g. skin, mucous membrane of the alimentary canal

    • Cellular: cells detect and signal the presence of pathogens. Protective substances are secreted and the pathogens are ingested and digested
    • Chemical: secreted substances generate an inhospitable environment for the growth of pathogens. These substances can trap pathogens, cause them to burst, or prevent them from entering cells and reproducing
    • Commensal organisms: the harmless bacteria and fungi present on and in the body compete with pathogens for nutrients

First line of defence

  • A human has three lines of defence
  • The first line of defence prevents the entry of pathogens and is comprised of the following:
    • Skin
    • Mucous membranes
    • Expulsive reflexes
    • Chemical secretions

Skin

  • Skin posses an outer layer of dry, dead, hardened cells filled with keratin
    • Keratin is a tough fibrous protein

  • This layer of cells acts as a physical barrier to pathogens
  • There are secretions of sebum that contain fatty acids which have antimicrobial properties
  • Evaporation of sweat from the skin leaves behind a salt residue
  • The lack of moisture, low pH and high salinity creates an inhospitable environment for the growth of microorganisms

Mucous membranes

  • Mucous membranes line the gut, airways and reproductive system
  • The mucous membrane consists of epithelial cells and mucus-secreting cells like goblet cells
  • Mucus contains lots of glycoproteins with long carbohydrate chains. These chains are what make mucus sticky
  • Viruses, bacteria, pollen and dust float about in the air that we breathe in
  • Mucus in the airways (trachea, bronchi and bronchioles) can trap these particles
  • The particles are then moved towards the back of the throat by cilia
    • Cilia are small hair-like structures on the surface of cells. Some ciliated epithelial cells have motile cilia that beat and move in a wave-like manner to move mucus along the airway

Expulsive reflexes

  • When a pathogen irritates the lining of an airway it can trigger an expulsive reflex; a cough or sneeze
  • Both a cough and sneeze result in a sudden expulsion of air. This expelled air contains secretions from the respiratory tract along with the foreign particles that have entered

Chemical secretions

  • Lysozymes are antimicrobial enzymes that breakdown the cell wall of bacteria
    • These special enzymes are found in body fluids such as blood, tears, sweat, and breast milk

  • Hydrochloric acid is produced by the cells that line the stomach
    • The acid creates a low pH inside the stomach which helps to kill any bacteria that has been ingested alongside food
    • The cells of the gut secrete mucus to prevent being damaged by hydrochloric acid

Commensal microorganisms

  • On average roughly 1kg of a human's weight is made up of the bacteria on or inside their body
  • Candida albicans and E. coli are examples of bacteria commonly found on and in humans
  • These microorganisms grow on the skin, in the mouth and intestines however they do not cause disease
    • Their growth is limited by the defence mechanisms

  • Hosting these microorganisms can have a major benefit for humans
  • They compete with pathogenic microorganisms and prevent them from invading host tissue
  • Antibiotics often kill friendly gut bacteria which can allow for opportunistic pathogens to grow

Second line of defence

  • When a pathogen manages to evade the first line of defence then the second line of defence will respond
    • The second line of defence involves phagocytic cells and antimicrobial proteins responding to the invading pathogens

  • Second-line responses include:
    • Blood clotting
    • Inflammation
    • Wound repair
    • Phagocytosis

Blood clotting

  • When the body is wounded it responds rapidly
  • A break in the mucous membranes or skin membranes causes the release of molecules that trigger a chemical cascade which results in blood clotting
    • Platelets release substances that undergo a series of chemical reactions 
    • The end product is that fibrin is formed, which forms a network, trapping platelets and forming a clot
  • Blood clotting prevents excess blood loss, the entry of pathogens and provides a barrier (scab) for wound healing to occur

Blood Clotting Cascade (1), downloadable AS & A Level Biology revision notesBlood Clotting Cascade (2), downloadable AS & A Level Biology revision notes

The blood clotting cascade

Examiner Tip

You don't need to know all of the steps involved in the blood-clotting cascade for your exam! They key information to remember is that platelets trigger a chemical reaction cascade that results in the formation of fibrin, which forms a scab. 

Inflammation

  • The surrounding area of a wound can sometimes become swollen, warm and painful to touch; this is described as inflammation
  • Inflammation is a local response to infection and tissue damage. It occurs via chemical signalling molecules which cause the migration of phagocytes into the tissue and increased blood flow
  • Body cells called mast cells respond to tissue damage by secreting the cell signalling molecule, histamine
  • Histamine stimulates the following responses:
    • Vasodilation increases blood flow through capillaries
    • "Leaky" capillaries allow fluid to enter the tissues and creating swelling
    • A portion of the plasma proteins leave the blood
    • Phagocytes leave the blood and enter the tissue to engulf foreign particles
    • Cells release cytokines that trigger an immune response in the infected area

  • Cytokines are cell-signalling compounds that stimulate inflammation and an immune response
    • They are small proteins molecules
    • Interleukins are a group of cytokines
    • Interleukin 1 (IL-1) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) promote inflammation
    • IL-1 targets the brain, causing drowsiness and fever

Wound repair

  • A scab is formed as a result of blood clotting
  • Underneath this scab, there are stem cells that divide by mitosis to heal the wound
  • Wound healing occurs in a number of overlapping stages:
    • New blood vessels form
    • Collagen is produced
    • Granulation tissue forms to fill the wound
    • Stem cells move over the new tissue and divide to produce epithelial cells
    • Contractile cells cause wound contraction
    • Unwanted cells die

Wound repair (1), downloadable AS & A Level Biology revision notesWound repair (2), downloadable AS & A Level Biology revision notes

The process of wound repair involving the formation of granulation tissue

  • All of the above are examples of non-specific immune responses
    • Non-specific defences are present in humans from birth. The rapid response is the same for every pathogen; they do not distinguish between pathogens
    • They are not always effective

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Lára

Author: Lára

Expertise: Biology Lead

Lára graduated from Oxford University in Biological Sciences and has now been a science tutor working in the UK for several years. Lára has a particular interest in the area of infectious disease and epidemiology, and enjoys creating original educational materials that develop confidence and facilitate learning.