Biological Molecules

Biological Molecules: Carbohydrates

Biological Molecules: Key Terms

Biological Molecules: Reactions

Monosaccharides

Glucose

The Glycosidic Bond

Chromatography: Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Starch & Glycogen

Cellulose

Biochemical Tests: Sugars & Starch

Finding the Concentration of Glucose

Biological Molecules: Lipids

Lipids

Triglyceride Function

Phospholipids

Biochemical Tests: Lipids

Lipid Diagrams & Properties

Biological Molecules: Proteins

Amino Acids & the Peptide Bond

Chromatography: Amino Acids

Protein Structure & Function

Protein Interactions

Biochemical Tests: Proteins

Globular & Fibrous Proteins

The Molecular Structure of Haemoglobin

The Molecular Structure of Collagen

Proteins: Enzymes

Many Proteins are Enzymes

Enzyme Specificity

How Enzymes Work

Required Practical: Measuring Enzyme Activity

Maths Skill: Drawing a Graph for Enzyme Rate Experiments

Maths Skill: Using a Tangent to Find Initial Rate of Reaction

Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Temperature

Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: pH

Maths Skill: Calculating pH

Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Enzyme Concentration

Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Substrate Concentration

Limiting Factors Affecting Enzymes: Inhibitors

Models & Functions of Enzyme Action

Practical Skill: Controlling Variables & Calculating Uncertainty

Nucleic Acids: Structure & DNA Replication

The Function of DNA & RNA

Nucleotide Structure & the Phosphodiester Bond

The Structure of DNA

The Structure of RNA

Ribosomes

The Origins of Research on the Genetic Code

Semi-Conservative Replication

The Process of Semi-Conservative Replication

Calculating the Frequency of Nucleotide Bases

The Watson Crick Model

ATP, Water & Inorganic Ions

The Structure of ATP

Hydrolysis & Synthesis of ATP

The Properties of Water

Inorganic Ions

Cell Structure

Cell Structure

The Cell Theory

Structure of Eukaryotic Cells

Specialisation of Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cell Organisation

Structure of Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic v Eukaryotic Cells

Viruses

The Microscope in Cell Studies

Methods of studying cells

Microscopy & Drawing Scientific Diagrams

Iodine Detects Starch Grains

Resolution & Magnification

Magnification Calculations

Cell Fractionation & Ultracentrifugation

Scientific Research into Cell Organelles

Cell Division in Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic Cells

Interphase

Mitosis

The Stages of Mitosis

Cytokinesis

Recognising the Stages of Mitosis

Investigating Plant Root Tips

Uncontrolled Cell Division & Cancer

Binary Fission

Viral Particle Replication

Cell Membranes & Transport

The Structure of Cell Membranes

Components of Cell Surface Membranes

The Cell Surface Membrane

Diffusion

Osmosis

Osmosis in Plant Cells

Osmosis in Animal Cells

Comparing Osmosis in Animal & Plant Cells

Water Potential Calibration Curves

Active Transport & Co-transport

Adaptations for Rapid Transport

Specialised Cells

Factors Affecting Membrane Fluidity

Cell Recognition & the Immune System

Cell Recognition

Antigens

Phagocytosis

The T Lymphocyte Response

The Role of Antigen-Presenting Cells

The Role of Helper T cells

The B lymphocyte Response

Antibodies

Antigen-Antibody Complex

Plasma & Memory Cells

Vaccines, Disease & Monoclonal Antibodies

Vaccines

Active & Passive Immunity

HIV

AIDS

Monoclonal Antibodies

Ethical Issues with Vaccines & Monoclonal Antibodies

ELISA

Exchange & Transport

Adaptations for Gas Exchange

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

Agar Blocks Practical

Adaptation to Facilitate Exchange

SA:V Ratio & Metabolic Rate

Adaptations of Gas Exchange Surfaces

Gas Exchange vs Water Loss

Human Gas Exchange

The Human Gas Exchange System

Dissecting the Gas Exchange System

Looking at the Gas Exchange under the Microscope

Three-way Taps

The Alveolar Epithelium

Ventilation & Gas Exchange

PVR

The Effects of Lung Disease

Pollution & Smoking

Evaluating Data on Lung Disease

Correlations & Causal Relationships - The Lungs

Digestion & Absorption

Digestion

Enzymes in Digestion

Enzyme Rate Practical

Mechanisms of Absorption

Visking Tubing Practical

Mass Transport in Animals

Features of Mass Transport

Haemoglobin & Oxygen

The Role of Haemoglobin

The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

The Bohr Shift

Cardiac Output

Animal Adaptations For Their Environment

The Circulatory System in Animals

Mammalian Circulation

The Human Heart

The Walls of the Heart

The Cardiac Cycle

Investigating Heart Rate

Blood Vessels

Capillaries & Tissue Fluid

Interpreting Data on the Cardiovascular System

Correlations & Causal Relationships - The Heart

Required Practical: Dissecting Mass Transport Systems

Mass Transport in Plants

Water Transport in the Xylem

Transpiration

Potometer Practical

Movement in the Phloem

The Sucrose Loading Mechanism

The Mass Flow Hypothesis

Data on the Mass Flow Hypothesis

Tracer & Ringing Experiments

Genetics, Variation & Interdependence

DNA, Genes & Chromosomes

Prokaryotic DNA

Eukaryotic DNA

Mitochondria & Chloroplast DNA

Genes

Genetic Loci

The Triplet Code

Non-Coding DNA

DNA & Protein Synthesis

The Genome

The Structure of RNA

Transcription

Eukaryotic Transcription

Translation

Nucleic Acid & Amino Acid Sequence Comparison

Genetic Diversity: Mutations & Meiosis

Genetic Mutations

Mutations in Chromosome Number

Meiosis

Meiosis in Animal & Plant cells

Meiosis: Sources of Genetic Variation

Meiosis Under a Microscope

The Outcomes & Processes of Mitosis & Meiosis

Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

Genetic Diversity

Maths Skill: Using Logarithms When Investigating Bacteria

Natural Selection

Directional & Stabilising Selection

Environmental Adaption

Investigating Microbial Growth

Species & Taxonomy

Courtship

Phylogenetic Classification

Hierarchy of the Taxa

Evolutionary Relationships

Biodiversity

Biodiversity Within a Community

Species Richness

Index of Diversity

Conservation & Farming

Investigating Diversity

Random Sampling

Quantitative Investigations of Variation

Mean & Standard Deviation

Genetic Relationships Between Organisms

Energy Transfers In & Between Organisms (A Level only)

Photosynthesis (A Level only)

Chloroplast Structures & their Functions

The Light Dependent Reaction

Photosynthetic Pigments

Using the Products of the Light Dependent Reaction

The Light-Independent Reaction

Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis

Investigating the Rate of Photosynthesis

Respiration (A Level only)

Mitochondria & the Need for Energy

The Stages of Aerobic Respiration

Glycolysis

The Link Reaction

The Krebs Cycle

The Role of NAD & FAD

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Anaerobic Respiration

Investigating the Rate of Respiration

Energy & Ecosystems (A Level only)

Primary Producers

Photosynthetic Products

Biomass

Gross Primary Production

Net Primary Production

Trophic Levels

Secondary Productivity

Calculating Productivity & Efficiency

Percentage Yield

The Effect of Farming

Nutrient Cycles (A Level only)

Nutrient Cycles

Practical Skill: Investigate the Effect of Minerals on Plant Growth

Microorganisms Role in Recycling Minerals

Fertilisers

Organisms Respond to Changes in their Environments (A Level only)

Response to Stimuli (A Level only)

Survival & Response

Growth Factors in Flowering Plants

Indoleacetic Acid (IAA)

Taxis & Kinesis

Reflex Arcs

Causes of Animal Movement

The Pacinian Corpuscle

Generator Potential

Investigating Touch and Temperature Receptors

The Human Retina

Myogenic Stimulation of the Heart

Investigating Variables that Affect Heart Rate

The Autonomic Nervous System

Calculating Cardiac Output

Nervous Coordination (A Level only)

Neurones

Resting Potentials

Nerve Impulses

The Refractory Period

Speed of Conduction of Impulses

Maths Skill: Calculating Maximum Impulse Frequency

Cholinergic Synapses

Transmission Across a Cholinergic Synapse

Drug Effects on Synapses

Neuromuscular Junctions

Skeletal Muscles (A Level only)

Muscle Pairs

The Structure of Skeletal Muscle

Examining Skeletal Muscle Under a Microscope

Muscular Contraction

Slow & Fast Skeletal Muscles

Investigating Muscle Fatigue

Homeostasis (A Level only)

Principles of Homeostasis

Negative Feedback

Insulin

Glucagon

Adrenaline

Control of Blood Glucose Concentration

Diabetes

Calculating the Concentration of Glucose in Urine

The Structure of the Nephron

The Function of the Nephron

Control of Blood Water Potential

Genetics, Populations, Evolution & Ecosystems (A Level only)

Inheritance (A Level only)

Key Terms in Genetics

Predicting Inheritance: Monohybrid Crosses

Predicting Inheritance: Dihybrid Crosses

Predicting Inheritance: Test Crosses

Investigating Genetic Ratios

The Chi-squared Test

Populations (A Level only)

Populations

Gene Pools & Allele Frequency

Hardy-Weinberg

Evolution (A Level only)

Genetic Variation

Natural Selection

Selective Advantage

Types of Selection

Evolution

Reproductive Separation

Types of Speciation

Investigating the Effects of Random Sampling on Allele Frequencies

Populations in Ecosystems (A Level only)

Communities

Abiotic & Biotic Factors

Carrying Capacity

Estimating the Size of a Population

Ecosystems

Succession

Growth Rate of Microorganisms

Conservation & Human Need

Investigating Species Distribution

The Control of Gene Expression (A Level only)

Genetic Mutations (A Level only)

Genetic Mutations

The Effect of Genetic Mutations

Regulation of Gene Expression (A Level only)

Totipotent Cells

Stem Cells

The Use of Stem Cells

Producing Tissue Cultures of Explants

Regulation of Transcription

Evaluating Data about Genetic Expression

Epigenetics

Epigenetics & Disease

RNA Interference

Two Types of Tumours

Tumour Development

Using Genome Projects (A Level only)

Genome Sequencing Projects

Determining Protein Sequences

Non-Coding DNA & Regulatory Genes

Sequencing Methods

Gene Technologies (A Level only)

Recombinant DNA Technology

Producing Fragments of DNA

Investigating the Specificity of Restriction Enzymes

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Culture of Transformed Host Cells

Uses of Recombinant DNA Technology

DNA Probes & DNA Hybridisation

Screening Patients

Genetic Counselling & Personalised Medicine

Variable Number Tandem Repeats

Gel Electrophoresis

Genetic Fingerprinting

Uses of Genetic Fingerprinting

Exam boards

• Cambridge (CIE) A Level Biology
• Edexcel A Level Biology (A) SNAB
• OCR A Level Biology

Study tools

• AQA A Level Biology · Exam Questions
• AQA A Level Biology · Past Papers

Related links

• A Level Biology · Revision Notes
• A Level Biology · Exam Questions
• A Level Biology · Past Papers